Insan yang dikasihi
الساهد في سبيل لله
Tuesday, April 21, 2009
Kisah Hakim Yang ADIL
Amirul Mukminin tidak berhak memulangkan kuda dalam keadaan tempang ! Tuan mengambilnya dalam keadaan baik, maka seharusnya dikembalikan dalam keadaan baik jua ! Demikianlah dengan jelas dan penuh keyakinan seorang tabi’iy yang mulyo membuat keputusan dalam perselisihan melibatkan khalifah Islam yang berpengaruh Umar al-Khattab radhiallahu anhu dengan seorang awam.Kes ini terjadi apabila kuda yang dibeli oleh khalifah menjadi tempang setelah digunakan.Tabi’iy yang dimaksudkan adalah seorang lelaki cerdik berakhlak mulia dari keturunan Yaman, dari kabilah al-Kindah, Syuraih bin al-Haris.Beliau yang tidak pernah dikenali sebelum itu di kalangan penduduk Madinah yang terdiri dari kalangan sahabat dan tabi’in yang hebat kini membuat keputusan yang membingungkan khalifah. Meskipun beliau tidak berkesempatan bertemu dengan Nabi Sallallahu alaihi waSalam namun keikhlasannya memeluk Islam disertakan dengan pengalamannya berada di zaman jahiliyyah sebelumnya menjadikan beliau seorang yang sangat memahami selok belok dan asam garam kehidupan.
Kebijaksanaannya mengendalikan kes yang rumit itu telah menjadikannya masyhur, sehinggalah UmarRadhiallahu anhu melantiknya menjadi hakim Negara Kufah yang merupakan salah satu wilayah besar Negara Islam yang beribunegarakan Madinah.Ternyata pemilihan Umar RadhiaLlahu anhu itu merupakan firasat[1] yang tepat apabila semua khalifah yang datang selepasnya hingga ke zaman permulaan Bani Umayyah, Mu’awiyahRadhiaLlahu anhu terus mengekalkan Syuraih Radhiallahu anhu selaku hakim tertinggi mahkamah.Beliau diamanahkan jawatan itu selama lebih kurang enam puluh tahun, memutuskan hukuman secara Adil , tidak berat sebelah dan saksama.Tidak kurang pula keputusan yang dibuat itu menyebelahi orang awam, sekalipun pendakwanya adalah orang bangsawan yang mempunyai kedudukan mulia.
Antara kes yang turut mendapat perhatian dunia hingga ke hari ini adalah dakwaan khalifah Islam ke empat, Ali bin Abi Talib RadhiaLlahu anhu terhadap seorang yahudi yang didakwa mengambil baju besinya yang keciciran darinya. Apabila kes itu diadili, Syuraih dengan lemah lembut bicaranya telah mengatakan :
Wahai Amirul Mukminin … saya meyakini bahawa Amirul Mukminin tidak akan berbohong. Namun kehakiman Islam menetapkan setiap pendakwa agar mengemukakan dua orang saksi. Ali RadhiaLlahu anhu menyahut …Ya… , bersama saya Qanbar , pembantu saya dan al-Hasan , putera saya selaku saksi.
Jawab Syuraih,….Maaf Ya Amirul Mukminin, Islam tidak mebenarkan anak selaku saksi … Khalifah Islam itu hanya mampu bertasbih dengan melafazkan SubhanAllah mendengar jawapan ringkas yangcukup bermakna tersebut.
Bukankah semua orang memaklumi bahawa al-Hasan dan a-HusinRadhiallahu anhu telah dinobatkan sebagai ketua pemuda Ahli Jannah di akhirat kelak.. Apakah Muslim berilmu seperti Syuraih tidak mengetahui hakikat ini atau dia mempunyai kepentingan tertentu….
Tidak, sama sekali tidak kerana hukum yang telah ditetapkan Allah dan NabiNya adalah suatu yang tidak boleh diubah sesuka hati. Walaupun ketinggian kedudukan mereka di sisi Allah disepakati oleh semua umat Islam tetapi perjalanan pentadbiran di dunia harus lah berdiri di atas kaedah-kaedah yang digariskan.Persaksian dalam Islam tidak boleh disokong oleh kaum keluarga, bagi mengelakkan conflict of interest.
Ali bin Abi Talib radhiaLlahu anhu yang menjawat jawatan tertinggi yakni Khalifah dalam Negara akur dengan keputusan hakim mahkamah kerana bagi beliau keputusan hakim perlu dihormati bukan untuk dipertikaikan. Luar jangkauan para pemerhati,… yahudi yang didakwa tadi akhirnya telah mendedahkan bahawa baju besi itu sememangnya milik Ali yang ditemuinya tercicir.Beliau akhirnya mengisytiharkan keIslamannya di hadapan khalayak ramai selepas melalui pengalaman peribadi yang membenarkan keadilan Islam bahawa tiada siapa yang akan teraniaya di bawah naungan Islam.Antara bukti lain ketelusannya ialah pada suatu hari, se ore dari anak lelakinya meminta beliau membuat keputusan dalam perselisihannya dengan teman-temannya. Sebaik sahaja selesai menerangkan perkembangan sebenar perselisihan itu, Syuraih menyuruh anaknya memanggil teman-temannya itu. Setelah kedua pihak mebuat penjelasan maka Syuraih telah memutuskan keputusan yang menyebelahi teman-teman anaknya. Keputusan yang telah menyebabkan anaknya merasa dirinya dipermalukan. Jawapan hakim yang mulia ini kepada anaknya ialah : Wahai anakku … Demi sesungguhnya engkau lebih kusayangi dari dunia dan seisi kandungnya, namun keredhaan Allah lebih aku utamakan berbanding denganmu !
Lebih dari itu Syuraih pernah memenjarakan anak lelakinya sendiri apabila orang yang dijamin oleh anaknya itu melarikan diri.Walaupun mempunyai jalan penyelesaian yang mengkagumkan semua pihak, namun Syuraih tidak dapat melarikan diri dari keraguan yang kadangkala menimpanya dalam keputusan-keputusan yang dibuat. Apabila menghadapi kerumitan seperti itu beliau akan menyerahkan urusannya kepada Allah dan kepada pihak yang berselisih beliau berkata :
Sesungguhnya ore yang membuat keputusan ini hanyalah manusia seperti kamu semua. Aku membuat keputusan ini untuk menyelamatkan kamu dari neraka Allah. Jika aku yang tidak terlibat melakukan kesalahan yang dibawa ke hadapan ini turut merasa takut hukuman Allah di akhirat, maka kamu seharusnya lebih merasa bimbang jika kes ini dibuka semula di makhkamah akhirat nanti.
Apabila pihak saksi terus bertegas agar dijatuhkan hukuman kepada seseorang yang dituduh sedangkan Syuraih merasai sesuatu kekaburan pada kes, maka beliau akan mengingatkan pendakwa dan tertuduh dengan berkata :
Aku menghukum berdasarkan bukti dan saksi, bukannya dengan sangkaan. Namun kamu semua harus ingat bahawa ketetapan ini tetap tidak menghalalkan sesuatu yang telah diharamkan oleh Allah Subhanahu waTaala. Peringatanya yang selalau dihebahkan kepada setiap pihak yang berbalah ialah :
Kelak orang yang menzalimi ore lain akan tahu siapakah sebenarnya yang rugi. Orang yang zalim kepada ore lain sedang menunggu hukuman Allah terhadapnya. Ore yang dizalimi menunggu pembelaan dariNya.
Syuraih jua turut tersohor dengan nasihat-nasihat ikhlasnya kepada umat Islam. Antara contohnya ialah cerita seorang lelaki yang telah dinasihati Syuraih. Lelaki ini sering menceritakan masalah peribadinya kepada orang lain sehingga didengari Syuraih. Syuraih mengingatkannya : Saudaraku ! setiap orang yang kita temui adalah merupakan ore yang menyayangi kita atau musuh kita.Jika kita menceritakan kesusahan kita pada ore yang kita sayangi, dia akan merasa sedih. Apabila kita menceritakan masalah kita pada musuh , mereka akan gembira. Saudaraku! ketahuilah olehmu… Beliau menunjukkan sebelah dari matanya kepada lelaki tersebut seraya berkata,
Mataku ini sudah tidak berfungsi sejak lima belas tahun yang lalu. Aku tidak dapat melihat manusia dan jalan serta semua hal dalam tempoh tersebut. Alhamdulillah aku tidak memberitahu sesiapa jua akan hal tersebut melainkan kepadamu, agar kamu mengambil Iktibar… Kamu sudah pasti pernah membaca firman Allah dalam surah Yusuf ayat ke 86 yang bermaksud :
"Sesungguhnya aku hanyalah mengadukan kesusahan dan dukacitaku kepada Allah …..
Maka jadikanlah Allah selayak AlKhaliq tumpuan doa permohonan dalam menghadapi tekanan dan kesusahan hidup.Dia lebih menyayangimu dan dapat membantumu.
Mudah mudahan Allah merahmati khalifah Islam ke dua, Umar al-Faruq RadhiaLlahu anhu, yang dengan firasatnya yang benar itu, lahir seorang hakim Islam yang hebat yang telah menjadi Asas kepada kesempurnaan pembentukan system perlaksanaan undang-undang dan mahkamah Islam.[1] Firasat bermakna idea yang diilhamkan Allah kepada seseorang mukmin.Dalam sebuah hadis riwayat al-Tirmizi ( no 3419 ) Nabi bersabda, maksudnya : Takutilah kamu firasat orang yang beriman kerana dia melihat dengan Nur Allah.
Kebijaksanaannya mengendalikan kes yang rumit itu telah menjadikannya masyhur, sehinggalah UmarRadhiallahu anhu melantiknya menjadi hakim Negara Kufah yang merupakan salah satu wilayah besar Negara Islam yang beribunegarakan Madinah.Ternyata pemilihan Umar RadhiaLlahu anhu itu merupakan firasat[1] yang tepat apabila semua khalifah yang datang selepasnya hingga ke zaman permulaan Bani Umayyah, Mu’awiyahRadhiaLlahu anhu terus mengekalkan Syuraih Radhiallahu anhu selaku hakim tertinggi mahkamah.Beliau diamanahkan jawatan itu selama lebih kurang enam puluh tahun, memutuskan hukuman secara Adil , tidak berat sebelah dan saksama.Tidak kurang pula keputusan yang dibuat itu menyebelahi orang awam, sekalipun pendakwanya adalah orang bangsawan yang mempunyai kedudukan mulia.
Antara kes yang turut mendapat perhatian dunia hingga ke hari ini adalah dakwaan khalifah Islam ke empat, Ali bin Abi Talib RadhiaLlahu anhu terhadap seorang yahudi yang didakwa mengambil baju besinya yang keciciran darinya. Apabila kes itu diadili, Syuraih dengan lemah lembut bicaranya telah mengatakan :
Wahai Amirul Mukminin … saya meyakini bahawa Amirul Mukminin tidak akan berbohong. Namun kehakiman Islam menetapkan setiap pendakwa agar mengemukakan dua orang saksi. Ali RadhiaLlahu anhu menyahut …Ya… , bersama saya Qanbar , pembantu saya dan al-Hasan , putera saya selaku saksi.
Jawab Syuraih,….Maaf Ya Amirul Mukminin, Islam tidak mebenarkan anak selaku saksi … Khalifah Islam itu hanya mampu bertasbih dengan melafazkan SubhanAllah mendengar jawapan ringkas yangcukup bermakna tersebut.
Bukankah semua orang memaklumi bahawa al-Hasan dan a-HusinRadhiallahu anhu telah dinobatkan sebagai ketua pemuda Ahli Jannah di akhirat kelak.. Apakah Muslim berilmu seperti Syuraih tidak mengetahui hakikat ini atau dia mempunyai kepentingan tertentu….
Tidak, sama sekali tidak kerana hukum yang telah ditetapkan Allah dan NabiNya adalah suatu yang tidak boleh diubah sesuka hati. Walaupun ketinggian kedudukan mereka di sisi Allah disepakati oleh semua umat Islam tetapi perjalanan pentadbiran di dunia harus lah berdiri di atas kaedah-kaedah yang digariskan.Persaksian dalam Islam tidak boleh disokong oleh kaum keluarga, bagi mengelakkan conflict of interest.
Ali bin Abi Talib radhiaLlahu anhu yang menjawat jawatan tertinggi yakni Khalifah dalam Negara akur dengan keputusan hakim mahkamah kerana bagi beliau keputusan hakim perlu dihormati bukan untuk dipertikaikan. Luar jangkauan para pemerhati,… yahudi yang didakwa tadi akhirnya telah mendedahkan bahawa baju besi itu sememangnya milik Ali yang ditemuinya tercicir.Beliau akhirnya mengisytiharkan keIslamannya di hadapan khalayak ramai selepas melalui pengalaman peribadi yang membenarkan keadilan Islam bahawa tiada siapa yang akan teraniaya di bawah naungan Islam.Antara bukti lain ketelusannya ialah pada suatu hari, se ore dari anak lelakinya meminta beliau membuat keputusan dalam perselisihannya dengan teman-temannya. Sebaik sahaja selesai menerangkan perkembangan sebenar perselisihan itu, Syuraih menyuruh anaknya memanggil teman-temannya itu. Setelah kedua pihak mebuat penjelasan maka Syuraih telah memutuskan keputusan yang menyebelahi teman-teman anaknya. Keputusan yang telah menyebabkan anaknya merasa dirinya dipermalukan. Jawapan hakim yang mulia ini kepada anaknya ialah : Wahai anakku … Demi sesungguhnya engkau lebih kusayangi dari dunia dan seisi kandungnya, namun keredhaan Allah lebih aku utamakan berbanding denganmu !
Lebih dari itu Syuraih pernah memenjarakan anak lelakinya sendiri apabila orang yang dijamin oleh anaknya itu melarikan diri.Walaupun mempunyai jalan penyelesaian yang mengkagumkan semua pihak, namun Syuraih tidak dapat melarikan diri dari keraguan yang kadangkala menimpanya dalam keputusan-keputusan yang dibuat. Apabila menghadapi kerumitan seperti itu beliau akan menyerahkan urusannya kepada Allah dan kepada pihak yang berselisih beliau berkata :
Sesungguhnya ore yang membuat keputusan ini hanyalah manusia seperti kamu semua. Aku membuat keputusan ini untuk menyelamatkan kamu dari neraka Allah. Jika aku yang tidak terlibat melakukan kesalahan yang dibawa ke hadapan ini turut merasa takut hukuman Allah di akhirat, maka kamu seharusnya lebih merasa bimbang jika kes ini dibuka semula di makhkamah akhirat nanti.
Apabila pihak saksi terus bertegas agar dijatuhkan hukuman kepada seseorang yang dituduh sedangkan Syuraih merasai sesuatu kekaburan pada kes, maka beliau akan mengingatkan pendakwa dan tertuduh dengan berkata :
Aku menghukum berdasarkan bukti dan saksi, bukannya dengan sangkaan. Namun kamu semua harus ingat bahawa ketetapan ini tetap tidak menghalalkan sesuatu yang telah diharamkan oleh Allah Subhanahu waTaala. Peringatanya yang selalau dihebahkan kepada setiap pihak yang berbalah ialah :
Kelak orang yang menzalimi ore lain akan tahu siapakah sebenarnya yang rugi. Orang yang zalim kepada ore lain sedang menunggu hukuman Allah terhadapnya. Ore yang dizalimi menunggu pembelaan dariNya.
Syuraih jua turut tersohor dengan nasihat-nasihat ikhlasnya kepada umat Islam. Antara contohnya ialah cerita seorang lelaki yang telah dinasihati Syuraih. Lelaki ini sering menceritakan masalah peribadinya kepada orang lain sehingga didengari Syuraih. Syuraih mengingatkannya : Saudaraku ! setiap orang yang kita temui adalah merupakan ore yang menyayangi kita atau musuh kita.Jika kita menceritakan kesusahan kita pada ore yang kita sayangi, dia akan merasa sedih. Apabila kita menceritakan masalah kita pada musuh , mereka akan gembira. Saudaraku! ketahuilah olehmu… Beliau menunjukkan sebelah dari matanya kepada lelaki tersebut seraya berkata,
Mataku ini sudah tidak berfungsi sejak lima belas tahun yang lalu. Aku tidak dapat melihat manusia dan jalan serta semua hal dalam tempoh tersebut. Alhamdulillah aku tidak memberitahu sesiapa jua akan hal tersebut melainkan kepadamu, agar kamu mengambil Iktibar… Kamu sudah pasti pernah membaca firman Allah dalam surah Yusuf ayat ke 86 yang bermaksud :
"Sesungguhnya aku hanyalah mengadukan kesusahan dan dukacitaku kepada Allah …..
Maka jadikanlah Allah selayak AlKhaliq tumpuan doa permohonan dalam menghadapi tekanan dan kesusahan hidup.Dia lebih menyayangimu dan dapat membantumu.
Mudah mudahan Allah merahmati khalifah Islam ke dua, Umar al-Faruq RadhiaLlahu anhu, yang dengan firasatnya yang benar itu, lahir seorang hakim Islam yang hebat yang telah menjadi Asas kepada kesempurnaan pembentukan system perlaksanaan undang-undang dan mahkamah Islam.[1] Firasat bermakna idea yang diilhamkan Allah kepada seseorang mukmin.Dalam sebuah hadis riwayat al-Tirmizi ( no 3419 ) Nabi bersabda, maksudnya : Takutilah kamu firasat orang yang beriman kerana dia melihat dengan Nur Allah.
Keutamaan serta besarnya saiz kajian Biodiversiti
Objective Dasar Biodiversiti Negara yang ketiga adalah
untuk membekalkan sumber makanan kepada rakyat…
untuk membekalkan sumber makanan kepada rakyat…
The current magnitude/ besarnya saiz kajian… of Biodiversity
An understanding of the magnitude of biodiversity at all levels is crucial to its conservation, management and utilization. The scale of biodiversity is immense, and while estimates of its magnitude are being improved, investment is required to bridge crucial knowledge gaps and synthesize existing information.
The magnitude of biodiversity can be examined at scales ranging from the ecosystem and habitat, through the organismal, down to the genetic levels
System designed for use at the global level are of limited value at scales important for conservation purposes
As total site inventories are not available, ecological classification are an important component in the assessment of sites for conservation purposes
Organismal biodiversity can be assessed at different levels of the classification hierarchy from kingdoms ang phyla, through orders, families, genera, and species, right down to the infraspecific and generic level
Different uses of the category species , and the importance of phylogenetic divergence, mean that organism diversity cannot be measured objectively solely by differences in species number; the species, although the most commonly used unit of biodiversity, is not a standard unit of biodiversity measurement
The working figure of 1.75 million species is the current best estimate for the number of living ( non- fossil… species currently known to science
An estimated 90 % of described species have never been included in regional accounts of biotas, or in identification manuals or modern monographs
The described species represent only a small proportion of species on earth, and a working estimate of 13.6 million is adopted here as the overall total that exists; this suggests that only 13% of the species on earth have yet been described
Molecular and genetic studies demontratrate that there is enormous diversity at the infraspecific level in almost every examined
A high amount of genetic variability is found in most species. For animals, variability is on average greater within invertebrate than vertebrate species, which have more subdivided populations. For mollusks, amphians, reptiles and mammals, about 25-30% of this variation is due tu genetic difference between population, whereas for birds and insects which have higher gene flow between population, this figure is only 8-10%
In plant species , there is a wider range of variability between difference species. Breeding system is the main determinant of the pattern genetic variability in plants
An indication of the extent of genetic diversity present within a species can be obtained from domesticated organism; for example seven separate vegetables are derived from the single species Brassica oleracea, and more than 800 breeds of sheep derive from Ovis aries
Halaman 111 Buku Global biodiversity Assessment unep united nation environment programme
Cambridge university press
Executive editor v h Heywood
First publish 1995
Isbn 0 521 56403 hardback
Isbn 0 521 56481 6 paperback
An understanding of the magnitude of biodiversity at all levels is crucial to its conservation, management and utilization. The scale of biodiversity is immense, and while estimates of its magnitude are being improved, investment is required to bridge crucial knowledge gaps and synthesize existing information.
The magnitude of biodiversity can be examined at scales ranging from the ecosystem and habitat, through the organismal, down to the genetic levels
System designed for use at the global level are of limited value at scales important for conservation purposes
As total site inventories are not available, ecological classification are an important component in the assessment of sites for conservation purposes
Organismal biodiversity can be assessed at different levels of the classification hierarchy from kingdoms ang phyla, through orders, families, genera, and species, right down to the infraspecific and generic level
Different uses of the category species , and the importance of phylogenetic divergence, mean that organism diversity cannot be measured objectively solely by differences in species number; the species, although the most commonly used unit of biodiversity, is not a standard unit of biodiversity measurement
The working figure of 1.75 million species is the current best estimate for the number of living ( non- fossil… species currently known to science
An estimated 90 % of described species have never been included in regional accounts of biotas, or in identification manuals or modern monographs
The described species represent only a small proportion of species on earth, and a working estimate of 13.6 million is adopted here as the overall total that exists; this suggests that only 13% of the species on earth have yet been described
Molecular and genetic studies demontratrate that there is enormous diversity at the infraspecific level in almost every examined
A high amount of genetic variability is found in most species. For animals, variability is on average greater within invertebrate than vertebrate species, which have more subdivided populations. For mollusks, amphians, reptiles and mammals, about 25-30% of this variation is due tu genetic difference between population, whereas for birds and insects which have higher gene flow between population, this figure is only 8-10%
In plant species , there is a wider range of variability between difference species. Breeding system is the main determinant of the pattern genetic variability in plants
An indication of the extent of genetic diversity present within a species can be obtained from domesticated organism; for example seven separate vegetables are derived from the single species Brassica oleracea, and more than 800 breeds of sheep derive from Ovis aries
Halaman 111 Buku Global biodiversity Assessment unep united nation environment programme
Cambridge university press
Executive editor v h Heywood
First publish 1995
Isbn 0 521 56403 hardback
Isbn 0 521 56481 6 paperback
Keutamaan serta besarnya saiz kajian Biodiversiti
Objective Dasar Biodiversiti Negara yang ketiga adalah
untuk membekalkan sumber makanan kepada rakyat…
untuk membekalkan sumber makanan kepada rakyat…
The current magnitude/ besarnya saiz kajian… of Biodiversity
An understanding of the magnitude of biodiversity at all levels is crucial to its conservation, management and utilization. The scale of biodiversity is immense, and while estimates of its magnitude are being improved, investment is required to bridge crucial knowledge gaps and synthesize existing information.
The magnitude of biodiversity can be examined at scales ranging from the ecosystem and habitat, through the organismal, down to the genetic levels
System designed for use at the global level are of limited value at scales important for conservation purposes
As total site inventories are not available, ecological classification are an important component in the assessment of sites for conservation purposes
Organismal biodiversity can be assessed at different levels of the classification hierarchy from kingdoms ang phyla, through orders, families, genera, and species, right down to the infraspecific and generic level
Different uses of the category species , and the importance of phylogenetic divergence, mean that organism diversity cannot be measured objectively solely by differences in species number; the species, although the most commonly used unit of biodiversity, is not a standard unit of biodiversity measurement
The working figure of 1.75 million species is the current best estimate for the number of living ( non- fossil… species currently known to science
An estimated 90 % of described species have never been included in regional accounts of biotas, or in identification manuals or modern monographs
The described species represent only a small proportion of species on earth, and a working estimate of 13.6 million is adopted here as the overall total that exists; this suggests that only 13% of the species on earth have yet been described
Molecular and genetic studies demontratrate that there is enormous diversity at the infraspecific level in almost every examined
A high amount of genetic variability is found in most species. For animals, variability is on average greater within invertebrate than vertebrate species, which have more subdivided populations. For mollusks, amphians, reptiles and mammals, about 25-30% of this variation is due tu genetic difference between population, whereas for birds and insects which have higher gene flow between population, this figure is only 8-10%
In plant species , there is a wider range of variability between difference species. Breeding system is the main determinant of the pattern genetic variability in plants
An indication of the extent of genetic diversity present within a species can be obtained from domesticated organism; for example seven separate vegetables are derived from the single species Brassica oleracea, and more than 800 breeds of sheep derive from Ovis aries
Halaman 111 Buku Global biodiversity Assessment unep united nation environment programme
Cambridge university press
Executive editor v h Heywood
First publish 1995
Isbn 0 521 56403 hardback
Isbn 0 521 56481 6 paperback
An understanding of the magnitude of biodiversity at all levels is crucial to its conservation, management and utilization. The scale of biodiversity is immense, and while estimates of its magnitude are being improved, investment is required to bridge crucial knowledge gaps and synthesize existing information.
The magnitude of biodiversity can be examined at scales ranging from the ecosystem and habitat, through the organismal, down to the genetic levels
System designed for use at the global level are of limited value at scales important for conservation purposes
As total site inventories are not available, ecological classification are an important component in the assessment of sites for conservation purposes
Organismal biodiversity can be assessed at different levels of the classification hierarchy from kingdoms ang phyla, through orders, families, genera, and species, right down to the infraspecific and generic level
Different uses of the category species , and the importance of phylogenetic divergence, mean that organism diversity cannot be measured objectively solely by differences in species number; the species, although the most commonly used unit of biodiversity, is not a standard unit of biodiversity measurement
The working figure of 1.75 million species is the current best estimate for the number of living ( non- fossil… species currently known to science
An estimated 90 % of described species have never been included in regional accounts of biotas, or in identification manuals or modern monographs
The described species represent only a small proportion of species on earth, and a working estimate of 13.6 million is adopted here as the overall total that exists; this suggests that only 13% of the species on earth have yet been described
Molecular and genetic studies demontratrate that there is enormous diversity at the infraspecific level in almost every examined
A high amount of genetic variability is found in most species. For animals, variability is on average greater within invertebrate than vertebrate species, which have more subdivided populations. For mollusks, amphians, reptiles and mammals, about 25-30% of this variation is due tu genetic difference between population, whereas for birds and insects which have higher gene flow between population, this figure is only 8-10%
In plant species , there is a wider range of variability between difference species. Breeding system is the main determinant of the pattern genetic variability in plants
An indication of the extent of genetic diversity present within a species can be obtained from domesticated organism; for example seven separate vegetables are derived from the single species Brassica oleracea, and more than 800 breeds of sheep derive from Ovis aries
Halaman 111 Buku Global biodiversity Assessment unep united nation environment programme
Cambridge university press
Executive editor v h Heywood
First publish 1995
Isbn 0 521 56403 hardback
Isbn 0 521 56481 6 paperback
Keutamaan serta besarnya saiz kajian Biodiversiti
Objective Dasar Biodiversiti Negara yang ketiga adalah
untuk membekalkan sumber makanan kepada rakyat…
untuk membekalkan sumber makanan kepada rakyat…
The current magnitude/ besarnya saiz kajian… of Biodiversity
An understanding of the magnitude of biodiversity at all levels is crucial to its conservation, management and utilization. The scale of biodiversity is immense, and while estimates of its magnitude are being improved, investment is required to bridge crucial knowledge gaps and synthesize existing information.
The magnitude of biodiversity can be examined at scales ranging from the ecosystem and habitat, through the organismal, down to the genetic levels
System designed for use at the global level are of limited value at scales important for conservation purposes
As total site inventories are not available, ecological classification are an important component in the assessment of sites for conservation purposes
Organismal biodiversity can be assessed at different levels of the classification hierarchy from kingdoms ang phyla, through orders, families, genera, and species, right down to the infraspecific and generic level
Different uses of the category species , and the importance of phylogenetic divergence, mean that organism diversity cannot be measured objectively solely by differences in species number; the species, although the most commonly used unit of biodiversity, is not a standard unit of biodiversity measurement
The working figure of 1.75 million species is the current best estimate for the number of living ( non- fossil… species currently known to science
An estimated 90 % of described species have never been included in regional accounts of biotas, or in identification manuals or modern monographs
The described species represent only a small proportion of species on earth, and a working estimate of 13.6 million is adopted here as the overall total that exists; this suggests that only 13% of the species on earth have yet been described
Molecular and genetic studies demontratrate that there is enormous diversity at the infraspecific level in almost every examined
A high amount of genetic variability is found in most species. For animals, variability is on average greater within invertebrate than vertebrate species, which have more subdivided populations. For mollusks, amphians, reptiles and mammals, about 25-30% of this variation is due tu genetic difference between population, whereas for birds and insects which have higher gene flow between population, this figure is only 8-10%
In plant species , there is a wider range of variability between difference species. Breeding system is the main determinant of the pattern genetic variability in plants
An indication of the extent of genetic diversity present within a species can be obtained from domesticated organism; for example seven separate vegetables are derived from the single species Brassica oleracea, and more than 800 breeds of sheep derive from Ovis aries
Halaman 111 Buku Global biodiversity Assessment unep united nation environment programme
Cambridge university press
Executive editor v h Heywood
First publish 1995
Isbn 0 521 56403 hardback
Isbn 0 521 56481 6 paperback
An understanding of the magnitude of biodiversity at all levels is crucial to its conservation, management and utilization. The scale of biodiversity is immense, and while estimates of its magnitude are being improved, investment is required to bridge crucial knowledge gaps and synthesize existing information.
The magnitude of biodiversity can be examined at scales ranging from the ecosystem and habitat, through the organismal, down to the genetic levels
System designed for use at the global level are of limited value at scales important for conservation purposes
As total site inventories are not available, ecological classification are an important component in the assessment of sites for conservation purposes
Organismal biodiversity can be assessed at different levels of the classification hierarchy from kingdoms ang phyla, through orders, families, genera, and species, right down to the infraspecific and generic level
Different uses of the category species , and the importance of phylogenetic divergence, mean that organism diversity cannot be measured objectively solely by differences in species number; the species, although the most commonly used unit of biodiversity, is not a standard unit of biodiversity measurement
The working figure of 1.75 million species is the current best estimate for the number of living ( non- fossil… species currently known to science
An estimated 90 % of described species have never been included in regional accounts of biotas, or in identification manuals or modern monographs
The described species represent only a small proportion of species on earth, and a working estimate of 13.6 million is adopted here as the overall total that exists; this suggests that only 13% of the species on earth have yet been described
Molecular and genetic studies demontratrate that there is enormous diversity at the infraspecific level in almost every examined
A high amount of genetic variability is found in most species. For animals, variability is on average greater within invertebrate than vertebrate species, which have more subdivided populations. For mollusks, amphians, reptiles and mammals, about 25-30% of this variation is due tu genetic difference between population, whereas for birds and insects which have higher gene flow between population, this figure is only 8-10%
In plant species , there is a wider range of variability between difference species. Breeding system is the main determinant of the pattern genetic variability in plants
An indication of the extent of genetic diversity present within a species can be obtained from domesticated organism; for example seven separate vegetables are derived from the single species Brassica oleracea, and more than 800 breeds of sheep derive from Ovis aries
Halaman 111 Buku Global biodiversity Assessment unep united nation environment programme
Cambridge university press
Executive editor v h Heywood
First publish 1995
Isbn 0 521 56403 hardback
Isbn 0 521 56481 6 paperback
Keutamaan serta besarnya saiz kajian Biodiversiti
Objective Dasar Biodiversiti Negara yang ketiga adalah
untuk membekalkan sumber makanan kepada rakyat…
untuk membekalkan sumber makanan kepada rakyat…
The current magnitude/ besarnya saiz kajian… of Biodiversity
An understanding of the magnitude of biodiversity at all levels is crucial to its conservation, management and utilization. The scale of biodiversity is immense, and while estimates of its magnitude are being improved, investment is required to bridge crucial knowledge gaps and synthesize existing information.
The magnitude of biodiversity can be examined at scales ranging from the ecosystem and habitat, through the organismal, down to the genetic levels
System designed for use at the global level are of limited value at scales important for conservation purposes
As total site inventories are not available, ecological classification are an important component in the assessment of sites for conservation purposes
Organismal biodiversity can be assessed at different levels of the classification hierarchy from kingdoms ang phyla, through orders, families, genera, and species, right down to the infraspecific and generic level
Different uses of the category species , and the importance of phylogenetic divergence, mean that organism diversity cannot be measured objectively solely by differences in species number; the species, although the most commonly used unit of biodiversity, is not a standard unit of biodiversity measurement
The working figure of 1.75 million species is the current best estimate for the number of living ( non- fossil… species currently known to science
An estimated 90 % of described species have never been included in regional accounts of biotas, or in identification manuals or modern monographs
The described species represent only a small proportion of species on earth, and a working estimate of 13.6 million is adopted here as the overall total that exists; this suggests that only 13% of the species on earth have yet been described
Molecular and genetic studies demontratrate that there is enormous diversity at the infraspecific level in almost every examined
A high amount of genetic variability is found in most species. For animals, variability is on average greater within invertebrate than vertebrate species, which have more subdivided populations. For mollusks, amphians, reptiles and mammals, about 25-30% of this variation is due tu genetic difference between population, whereas for birds and insects which have higher gene flow between population, this figure is only 8-10%
In plant species , there is a wider range of variability between difference species. Breeding system is the main determinant of the pattern genetic variability in plants
An indication of the extent of genetic diversity present within a species can be obtained from domesticated organism; for example seven separate vegetables are derived from the single species Brassica oleracea, and more than 800 breeds of sheep derive from Ovis aries
Halaman 111 Buku Global biodiversity Assessment unep united nation environment programme
Cambridge university press
Executive editor v h Heywood
First publish 1995
Isbn 0 521 56403 hardback
Isbn 0 521 56481 6 paperback
An understanding of the magnitude of biodiversity at all levels is crucial to its conservation, management and utilization. The scale of biodiversity is immense, and while estimates of its magnitude are being improved, investment is required to bridge crucial knowledge gaps and synthesize existing information.
The magnitude of biodiversity can be examined at scales ranging from the ecosystem and habitat, through the organismal, down to the genetic levels
System designed for use at the global level are of limited value at scales important for conservation purposes
As total site inventories are not available, ecological classification are an important component in the assessment of sites for conservation purposes
Organismal biodiversity can be assessed at different levels of the classification hierarchy from kingdoms ang phyla, through orders, families, genera, and species, right down to the infraspecific and generic level
Different uses of the category species , and the importance of phylogenetic divergence, mean that organism diversity cannot be measured objectively solely by differences in species number; the species, although the most commonly used unit of biodiversity, is not a standard unit of biodiversity measurement
The working figure of 1.75 million species is the current best estimate for the number of living ( non- fossil… species currently known to science
An estimated 90 % of described species have never been included in regional accounts of biotas, or in identification manuals or modern monographs
The described species represent only a small proportion of species on earth, and a working estimate of 13.6 million is adopted here as the overall total that exists; this suggests that only 13% of the species on earth have yet been described
Molecular and genetic studies demontratrate that there is enormous diversity at the infraspecific level in almost every examined
A high amount of genetic variability is found in most species. For animals, variability is on average greater within invertebrate than vertebrate species, which have more subdivided populations. For mollusks, amphians, reptiles and mammals, about 25-30% of this variation is due tu genetic difference between population, whereas for birds and insects which have higher gene flow between population, this figure is only 8-10%
In plant species , there is a wider range of variability between difference species. Breeding system is the main determinant of the pattern genetic variability in plants
An indication of the extent of genetic diversity present within a species can be obtained from domesticated organism; for example seven separate vegetables are derived from the single species Brassica oleracea, and more than 800 breeds of sheep derive from Ovis aries
Halaman 111 Buku Global biodiversity Assessment unep united nation environment programme
Cambridge university press
Executive editor v h Heywood
First publish 1995
Isbn 0 521 56403 hardback
Isbn 0 521 56481 6 paperback
Jihad=Bersungguh sungguh=Kadah
Bab Jihad
Inna Abwaabul_Jannah tahta dzilalilis_Suyufi
Jihad adalah fardhu Kifayah dalil firman Allah Subhanahu WaTaala : Al Baqarah:ayat 216
Kamu diwajibkan berperang untuk menentang pencerobohan
Yang dimaksudkan dengan Jihad adalah berjuang di jalan Allah , dalil firman Allah Subhanahu WaTaala:
Dan berperangilah kerana menegakkan dan mempertahankan AdDin Allah (Al Baqarah:190)
Jihad bukanlah Fardhu Ain, Dalilnya Allah Subhanahu waTaala:
Dan tidaklah (betul atau elok), semua mu’min keluar semuanya untuk pergi berperang (AtTaubah :122)
Jihad pada awal kedatangan Isalam adalah wajib ke atas seluruh umat. Dalil firman Allah Subhanahu waTaala:
Pergilah kamu beramai-ramai untuk berperang pada jalan Allah sama ada dengan keadaan ringan dan mudah bergerak ataupun dengan keadaan berat disebabkan berbagai-bagai tanggungjawab (AtTaubah :41)
Jihad adalah sebaik-baik amalan. Dalilnya sabda Rasulullah Sallallahu alaihi wasalam:
Sesungguhnya berangkat pada waktu pagi atau petang untuk berjuang di jalan Allah adalah lebih baik daripada dunia dan segala isinya (hadis riwayat Al Bukhari:2792,2796,6568, Muslim:1880,Ahmad:11941,12028 dan selain mereka itu)
Jihad merupakan amalan yang boleh menyelamatkan seseorang dari seksa neraka. Dalinya Sabda Rasulullah sallahu alaihi wa Salam.
Apabila kedua-dua kaki seseorang berdebu kerana berjuang di jalan Allah, maka Allah akan mengharamkan jasadnya daripada disentuh api neraka (hadis riwayat Al Bukhari:907, Ahmad:15505, AtTarmizi:1632 dan An Nasai:3116)
Jihad merupakan jalan menuju syurga. Dalilnya sabda Rasulullah salallahu alaihi wasalam.
Ketahui bahawa jannah adalah terletak dibawah naungan pedang (hadis riwayat Al Bukhari:2891,2966,3024, Muslim:1742, Abu Daud : 2631 dan selain mereka itu)
Jihad tidak wajib ke atas kaum perempuan. Dalilnya sebuah hadis di mana A’isyah Radhiallahu anha bertanya kepada Rasulullah Sallallahu wasalam
Adakah kaum perempuan wajib berjihad , wahai Rasulullah? Baginda menjawab “Ya, mereka wajib berjihad namun tiada peperangan di dalamnya iaitu melaksanakan ibadah haji dan umrah
Jihad tidak wajib ke atas kanak-kanak di bawah umur, dalil perkataan Ibnu Umar radhiallahu anhuma:
Aku menawarkan diri kepada Rasulullah Shallallahu alaihi wasalam untuk ikut serta dalam perang Uhud dan ketika itu aku masih berusia 14 tahun, namun Baginda tidak membenarkan diriku ikut serta dalam peperangan tersebut (hadis riwayat al Abukhari :2664, 4097, Muslim:1868, Ahmad 4647 dan Abu daud :4406)
Orang yang hendak berjihad mesti tidak buta
Ada sambungan lagi , InsyaAllah
Inna Abwaabul_Jannah tahta dzilalilis_Suyufi
Jihad adalah fardhu Kifayah dalil firman Allah Subhanahu WaTaala : Al Baqarah:ayat 216
Kamu diwajibkan berperang untuk menentang pencerobohan
Yang dimaksudkan dengan Jihad adalah berjuang di jalan Allah , dalil firman Allah Subhanahu WaTaala:
Dan berperangilah kerana menegakkan dan mempertahankan AdDin Allah (Al Baqarah:190)
Jihad bukanlah Fardhu Ain, Dalilnya Allah Subhanahu waTaala:
Dan tidaklah (betul atau elok), semua mu’min keluar semuanya untuk pergi berperang (AtTaubah :122)
Jihad pada awal kedatangan Isalam adalah wajib ke atas seluruh umat. Dalil firman Allah Subhanahu waTaala:
Pergilah kamu beramai-ramai untuk berperang pada jalan Allah sama ada dengan keadaan ringan dan mudah bergerak ataupun dengan keadaan berat disebabkan berbagai-bagai tanggungjawab (AtTaubah :41)
Jihad adalah sebaik-baik amalan. Dalilnya sabda Rasulullah Sallallahu alaihi wasalam:
Sesungguhnya berangkat pada waktu pagi atau petang untuk berjuang di jalan Allah adalah lebih baik daripada dunia dan segala isinya (hadis riwayat Al Bukhari:2792,2796,6568, Muslim:1880,Ahmad:11941,12028 dan selain mereka itu)
Jihad merupakan amalan yang boleh menyelamatkan seseorang dari seksa neraka. Dalinya Sabda Rasulullah sallahu alaihi wa Salam.
Apabila kedua-dua kaki seseorang berdebu kerana berjuang di jalan Allah, maka Allah akan mengharamkan jasadnya daripada disentuh api neraka (hadis riwayat Al Bukhari:907, Ahmad:15505, AtTarmizi:1632 dan An Nasai:3116)
Jihad merupakan jalan menuju syurga. Dalilnya sabda Rasulullah salallahu alaihi wasalam.
Ketahui bahawa jannah adalah terletak dibawah naungan pedang (hadis riwayat Al Bukhari:2891,2966,3024, Muslim:1742, Abu Daud : 2631 dan selain mereka itu)
Jihad tidak wajib ke atas kaum perempuan. Dalilnya sebuah hadis di mana A’isyah Radhiallahu anha bertanya kepada Rasulullah Sallallahu wasalam
Adakah kaum perempuan wajib berjihad , wahai Rasulullah? Baginda menjawab “Ya, mereka wajib berjihad namun tiada peperangan di dalamnya iaitu melaksanakan ibadah haji dan umrah
Jihad tidak wajib ke atas kanak-kanak di bawah umur, dalil perkataan Ibnu Umar radhiallahu anhuma:
Aku menawarkan diri kepada Rasulullah Shallallahu alaihi wasalam untuk ikut serta dalam perang Uhud dan ketika itu aku masih berusia 14 tahun, namun Baginda tidak membenarkan diriku ikut serta dalam peperangan tersebut (hadis riwayat al Abukhari :2664, 4097, Muslim:1868, Ahmad 4647 dan Abu daud :4406)
Orang yang hendak berjihad mesti tidak buta
Ada sambungan lagi , InsyaAllah
Timber land_ effected by logging operation
In 2000, the forest cover in the world is estimated at 29.6% of the total land area or 3,869 million hectares and divided into four broad categories mainly temperate, boreal, subtropical and tropical forests. Temperate, boreal and subtropical forests occupy about 1.86 billion hectares and tropical forests occupy 2.01 billion hectares (Food and Agriculture Organization [FAO], 2005). Twenty nine countries have more than half of their land covered with forest. Malaysia is one of the countries having more than 50% of the land area covered with forest. The Malaysian tropical rain forests are one of the twelve mega-biodiverse countries in the world. The forest contains 14,500 species of flowering plants and trees, 600 species of birds, 286 species of mammals, 140 species of snakes and 80 species of lizards (Forestry Department Peninsular Malaysia [FDPM], 2004).
In 2006, the total forested land in Malaysia is 19.52 million hectares (59.50% of total land area), with 5.88 (44. 7 %) million hectares in Peninsular Malaysia, 4.40 (59.7%) million hectares in Sabah and 9.24 (75.1%) million hectares in Sarawak. From the 19.52 million hectares of forested land, 17.40 million hectares are dry inland forest or dipterocarp forest while the remaining 1.54 million hectares and 0.58 million hectares are swamp forest and mangrove forest, respectively. In order to preserve the forest resources as a renewable resource, 14.39 million ha or 73 % of the forest area have been gazetted as a Permanent Reserved Forest (PRF) for sustainable management. The area of PRF in Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah and Sarawak are 4.70 million hectares, 3.59 million hectares and 6.10 million hectares, respectively (Abdul Rahman, 2008).
The PRF in Malaysia has been systematically managed since the beginning of the century. The forests are managed into three broad forest types such as dipterocarp forest, swamp forest and mangrove forest. There are two concepts in managing the dipterocarp forest in Peninsular Malaysia, namely Modified Malayan Uniform System (MUS) and Selective Management System (SMS). The aim of MUS and SMS is to manage the forest on a sustainable basis. However, the principle behind the system is different. Under the selective logging system there is an intention to harvest the timber at the end of the 30 years cutting cycle while under the uniform system one has to wait a complete rotation of 55 years or more until the regeneration has grown into harvestable trees (FDPM, 2003b).
The MUS consists of removing the matured crop in a single felling of all trees below 45 cm diameter at breast height (dbh) for all species while SMS entails selection of optimum management regimes based on pre-felling inventory data with the minimum cutting regime of 50 cm for dipterocarps, except Chengal (Neobalanocarpus heimii) where the cutting limit would be above 60 cm dbh and 45 cm for non-dipterocarps (FDPM, 2003b).
The total forested areas to be managed under SMS and MUS are estimated at 1.3 million hectares and 1.54 million hectares respectively or 2.84 hectares of productive forests of the PFR (FDPM, 2005a). To ensure that the forest is better conserved and sustained, the annual coupe in Peninsular Malaysia has been scaled down under the 6th Malaysia Plan (1991-1995), 7th Malaysia Plan (1996-2000) and 8th Malaysia Plan (2001-2005) to 52,250 ha, 46,040 ha and 42,870 ha per annum, respectively (Azmi and Yap, 2004).
1. 2 Problem Statement and Objectives of the study
The forestry sector has significantly contributed to the socio-economic development of the country. In 2005, the forestry sector and wood products (including wood and rattan furniture) contributed about RM21.5 billion of the Malaysian Gross Domestic Product. This accounted for 4.0% of the total gross export receipts of Malaysia at f.o.b of RM533.8 billion (FDPM, 2005a). However, harvesting in the hill forests draws the public’s attention and has been blamed for environmental problems especially land slide, soil erosion, flooding and degradation of water quality. Currently, most of the harvesting is in the hill forests because of the reduction in areas of the lowland forest mainly cleared for agriculture, industrial and urban expansion since the1960s (Daniel and Kulaisingham, 1974; Wan Razali and Abdul Rahim, 1987). The hill forests are sources of water supply in the country where most of the river systems are located. According to Department of Drainage and Irrigation (2004) Malaysia has 189 river systems of which 89 are in Peninsular Malaysia, 22 in Sarawak and 78 in Sabah. According to Zul Mukhshar (2000), 97% percent of the water for agriculture, industries and domestic use is derived from streams and rivers that flow from the forest.
Forest harvesting in the hill forest in Peninsular Malaysia is mainly a ground-based system with the combination of crawler tractors and winch. Many studies recognized that forest operations using heavy machine in the hill forests affect the physical soil properties through soil compaction, increased run-off and erosion and degradation of river water quality (Borhan et al., 1987; Zulkifli, 1990; Zulkifli et al., 1987,1993; Kamaruzaman and Nik Muhamad, 1992; Baharuddin, 1995; Cornish, 2001; Mohd Kamil et al., 2001; Laffan et al., 2001; Rab, 2004).
In an attempt to reduce soil disturbance and degradation of river water quality, Rimbaka Timber Harvester (Rimbaka) machine was introduced as an alternative to the crawler tractor. Rimbaka is a modified cabling system to winch the felled logged for minimized movement of heavy machines. A study of forest harvesting using Rimbaka technique to extract logs in the hill forest is important as an alternative to the ground-based system. The Rimbaka selected in this study can be used as a basis for comparing the impact of Rimbaka and ground-based logging on physical soil properties and river water quality.
The general objective of the study is to quantify the effects of forest harvesting using Rimbaka Timber Harvester (Rimbaka) system on the river water quality and selected physical soil properties. The specific objectives are to:
a) assess selected river water quality parameters and Water Quality Index (DOE-WQI) at different forest operation stages.
b) determine the relationship between turbidity and total suspended solids (TSS) before, during and after harvesting.
c) evaluate the change in physical soil properties at different forest operations.
1. 3 Scope and Limitations of the Study
The duration of the study was 11 months which conducted before, during and after forest harvesting. The studies on physical soil properties are limited to five parameters which are texture, particle density, bulk density, porosity, and soil moisture content. The water quality index parameters measured are dissolved oxygen (DO), chemical oxygen demand (COD), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), total suspended solids (TSS), ammoniacal nitrogen (AN) and pH. Other parameter such as turbidity is also being measured. For this study, water quality index and measured parameters such as turbidity and total suspended solid are used as indicator to evaluate the changes of water quality before, during and after harvesting. The comparisons also involved conditions such as dry and wet season. The undisturbed forest, logging area and road construction across the stream are also being considered. This study was conducted from November 2005 to September 2006 at Compartment 35, Gunung Benum Forest Reserved, Raub, Pahang.
2.1 Reduced Impact Logging
Forest harvesting operation involves three main activities mainly tree felling and log cutting, extracting of logs to temporary log landing and transportation of logs to primary log landing. In the conventional method, trees were felled using axe or hand sawing, buck into suitable length and size before being pulled out by animals (FAO, 1973). The technique of forest harvesting has changed over time. Chainsaws are used to fell the trees and heavy machines are introduced to replace animals for log extraction. The method of harvesting depends on many aspects such as physical characteristics of the environment, infrastructure, species composition, labor availability, cost and technology. There are many techniques of timber extraction which were introduced such as manual labor, animals, trucks, farm tractors, wheel skidders, tracked skidders, bulldozers, railways, cable systems (portable winch, gravity cable ways, high lead yarding and skyline system), helicopters, balloons, airships and loaders (Borhan et al., 1987; Jonsson and Lindgren, 1990; Kamaruzaman and Nik Muhamad, 1992; Shamsudin et al., 1999 and Danny, 2001).
In Peninsular Malaysia, timber harvesting using ground-based system with the combination of crawler tractors and winch lorries has been the common practice. This technique was introduced in the 1960s to replace the extraction of logs using buffalos and elephants (FAO, 1973). The combination of crawler tractor and winch lorries was proven successful in gentle terrain of lowland forest. At present, most of the forest harvesting areas are in hilly areas and are still using a combination of crawler tractors and winch lorries because of the greater production per working day (Saharudin et al., 1999).
Many studies in Malaysia and other countries reported that forest harvesting using heavy machines can cause significant and wide spread soil disturbance (Borhan et al, 1987; Kamaruzaman and Nik Muhamad, 1986,1992; Rab, 1994, 1996; Laffan et al., 2001). Forest harvesting and associated operations have also affected stream water quality through erosion and sedimentation (Baharuddin, 1988, 1995; Grayson et al., 1993; Cornish, 2001; Mohd Kamil et al., 2001; Inthavy, 2005).
In general, the effects of forest harvesting can be reduced by the adoption of Reduced Impact Logging (RIL) technique (Anon., 2003b). The term “RIL” was first used by Pinard et al. in 1995. It stands for efficient timber harvesting technique that minimizes the damage to the forest ecosystem (Jonkers, 2001). According to Richard (1999), RIL is defined as the proper implementation of a set of harvesting techniques which results in lower level of incidental damage to both the residual stand and soil, reduced soil erosion and improved water quality, so that the productive and functional capacity of the residual after logging is sustained. There are three main components of RIL namely pre-harvest operation, during harvesting operation and post-harvest operation.
Prior to harvesting, a pre-felling forest inventory is normally conducted to provide information on species distribution, timber stock, geology status, elevation and terrain. The information on forest stocking is to determine the minimum cutting regime for tree marking. Tree marking is to identify and to mark all trees for harvesting. In tree marking, all the information on the site such as river buffer zone, forest roads such as feeder road and skid trails are marked on the ground and also on the map. The activities are usually performed during forest harvesting, feeder road construction, followed by skid trail construction, log landing construction, felling the trees and cutting the trees to the log sizes. The logs were extracted from the stump to the temporary log landing followed by transportation using winch lorries to the primary log landing (FDPM, 2003). The activities after forest harvesting involve the rehabilitation of feeder roads, skid trail, log landings and logging camps. The rehabilitation activities are carried out to ensure environmental stability of the logging area after the completion of the harvesting operation.
2.1.1 Forest Road
Forest road is an important part of forest harvesting operation to ensure a smooth flow of logs from the forest. Before forest harvesting is done, road planning must be completed and subsequently constructed according to the specifications in the logging permit and proper forest engineering standards to control density and to minimize soil disturbances and stream sedimentation (FDPM, 1999).
Gullison and Hardner (1993) reported that knowledge on road design ia an important component of forest management. Their studies and computer simulation showed how road designs can be used to minimize damage to the forest during logging. In order to minimize the impact of compaction, the forest manager should minimize the area of skid trail and rehabilitate the areas (Rab, 1996). Poorly located, constructed or maintained road can cause major water degradation with serious and long term social implications to the affected communities (Wells, 2001). According to Jonsson and Lindgren (1990) the construction of forest roads is blamed for the negative impacts of forestry activities such as erosion and other damaging environmental consequences. Yet some of these effects can be controlled by proper planning.
There are four classes of logging roads in Peninsular Malaysia mainly primary road, secondary road, feeder road and skid trail. The main and secondary roads are long haul transportation systems connected to the public road to harvesting area while feeder road and skid trail are short haul transportation in the harvesting area (FDPM, 1999). The types of the forest road in Peninsular Malaysia are shown in figure 2.1.
2.1.2 Log Landing
Log landing is an area where logs are assembled before loaded into lorries to be transported to sawmills. The proper construction of log landing is to minimize its size in order to reduce the loss of harvestable forest area, as well as to prevent sedimentation of watercourse. The log-landing density and surface area can be minimized by proper planning of roads and landings prior to logging. Heninrich (1995) suggested that log landing area should be located on slight sloping ground-based. The best sites for log landing are in the open areas away from streams or normally at least 30 meters radius from any running stream. In the United States, the minimum radius of log landing is around 30-40 m but it depends on the size of logging setting. The log landing is important to minimize the effects of soil disturbance without undue adverse effect on the efficiency of yarding and operation (Chua, 1986). Rab (1996) reported that log landing in Australia occupies 3% - 4% of the harvesting area. In Peninsular Malaysia, the areas of log landing do not exceed 0.5 ha for every 100 ha of the area to be harvested. The log landing should be at least 50 meters away from permanent watercourse (FDPM, 2003b).
2.1.3 Buffer Zone
A buffer zone is defined as an area of land along a stream, left undisturbed during forest operations. Both sides of the river are sensitive areas especially for the movement of heavy machines and felled trees. The purpose of the buffer zone is to provide an undisturbed area on both sides of the stream to protect the stream from soil erosion and as a filter to the stream to maintain water quality (Bren, 1998).
The concept of buffer zone has been used in the forestry sector for a long time and widely adopted in many countries including Australia, Canada, New Zealand and Malaysia and United States (Pearce and Hamilton, 1986; O’ Loughlin et al., 1990; California Department of Forestry, 1992 as cited in Abdul Rahim et al., 1993). Gilmour (1977) recommended that the width of the river buffer zone should be at least 20 meters for both sides of the stream. The most commonly recommended width ranges from 20 to 30 meters on both sides of the stream (Abdul Rahim et al., 1993). The minimum width of river buffer zone in Peninsular Malaysia is 20 meters but this depends on slope and calculated as: Buffer width (m) = (7.6 + 0.6 x slope %). Table 2.1 shows the width of the buffer zone in Peninsular Malaysia.
Protection areas-harvesting is not allowed in this area
Protection areas
Sources (FDPM, 1999)
Effects of forest harvesting on soil properties
According to Abdul Rahim (2004) the soil is in the state of equilibrium. Acceleration occurs when the soil is disturbed by harvesting activities. Soil disturbance by the forest harvesting operations depends on various factors such as inherent soil properties, soil moisture content, topography, technique of harvesting, and forest conservation practices (Laffan et al., 2001). Various techniques of forest harvesting have been studied to determine the extent of soil disturbance for ground-based, cable logging and helicopter logging. The comparison of soil disturbance between cable logging and conventional logging in Tasmania (Williamson, 1990) and in Victoria (Rab, 1994, 1996) showed that cable-logging has significantly reduced surface soil disturbance. Approximately about 11% of the cable-logged coupe has the topsoil disturbed compared to between 60% and 80% of the coupes in the Victorian central highlands where conventional logging was practised .
Rab (1994) studied the changes in physical soil properties associated with clear felling of Eucalyptus regnans forest in Southern Australia using mechanical skid trail of log to a landing using tyre skidder and flexible steel track skidder. It was found that 87% of the area had some soil disturbance. About two thirds of the logging areas were disturbed by the logging activities. Skid trail and log landing contribute to the soil disturbance of about 25% and 5%, respectively. The most common disturbance was in the topsoil (65%).
Borhan et al. (1987) compared soil surface damages in Tekam Forest Reserve, Jengka, Pahang by highlead yarding system with a crawler tractor logging. They reported that the total area of surface damaged by highlead yarding system was higher (23%) compared to tractor logging (18%). A comparative study of helicopter harvesting and tractor harvesting by Danny (2001) reported that helicopter harvesting created canopy opening and skid trail of 4% - 11% compared to tractor harvesting (15.91%). A higher canopy allows more direct rainfall to the soil surface hence resulting in higher erosion.
Kamaruzaman (1992) reported a major ground disturbance on crawler tractor-logged areas in Tekam Forest Reserve, Pahang. Based on his observation, the total percentage of areas disturbed increased by the logging operation during wet season on skid trail caused by skidding. The moving logged being pulled by the tractor tore out vegetation, displaced litter and dug into the soil along the path. This problem became more serious on steep topography. Skid trail occupies the largest percentage ranging from 34.2 to 52.1% of the total disturbed area.
According to Baharuddin (1995) the effects of crawler tractor logging in Jengka Experimental Basin in Tekam Forest Reserve, Jerantut, Pahang significantly changed the soil physical properties. The infiltration rate was higher in undisturbed forest soil compared to the skid trail and logging road. The higher the infiltration rate the lower is the surface runoff resulting in reduced erosion.
Severe erosion occurred during the first year after logging and was less severe in the second year. Slope is one of the factors influencing soil erosion from the skid trail and logging road during the first year after logging operations. The amount of soil erosion can be reduced if the gradient of the skid trail and logging roads does not exceed 20 percent.
Shukri et al. (1999) studied the impact of forest harvesting using Long Haulage Ground Cable System (LHGCS) and tractor logging on soil properties. No skid trails were constructed in the harvesting area using LHGCS. They found that the LHGCS had less soil compaction and greater soil moisture compared to the conventional method. These results clearly showed that the movement of heavy machine causes severe soil compaction.
The effects of various techniques of forest harvesting on soil disturbance also influence the physical soil properties. Soil physical properties mainly texture, particle density, bulk density, porosity and soil moisture content are dominant factors which affect plant growth. These properties determine the availability of oxygen in soil, the mobility of water into or through the soil profile, and the ease of the root penetration (Duane and Raymond, 2004).
2.2.1 Soil Texture
Soil consists of soil particles of varying sizes and can be separated into sand, silt and clay. Sand, silt and clay contents are the most fundamental soil physical properties and are widely used in soil classification. Naime et al. (2001) classified soil particles, according to their size such as clay (<2 µm), silt (from 2 to 50 µm) and sand (from 50 µm to 2 mm). The knowledge of soil particle size distribution provides information to predict water movement in the soil and its vulnerability to erosion.
Baharuddin (1995) reported that silt and clay in the logging road were significantly higher than that in the skid trail and undisturbed forest. The logging road and skid trail were located on exposed area without vegetative cover to protect soil surface from the impact of rain drops compared to undisturbed forest. Rab (1996) studied the effects of physical soil properties on logging and slash burning in the Eucalyptus forest of southeastern Australia, He reported that in the burnt areas, there is no difference in particle size distribution of topsoil profiles compared to the undisturbed forest.
Makineci et al. (2006) studied the effects on soil texture in the long-term harvesting on skid trail in fir (Abis bornmulleeriana Matt) plantation forest in Belgrade forest, Turkey. They reported that the composition of sand, silt and clay in the skid trail is 52.13%, 27.55% and 20.32% respectively compared to undisturbed area with the composition of 48.84%, 21.99% and 29.17%, respectively. The reason for the difference in the silt and clay might be due to the surface flow and soil erosion.
2.2.2 Bulk Density and Porosity
Bulk density is the parameter used to measure soil compaction. It refers to the mass of soil and pore space per unit volume of soil on oven dry basis. The higher the bulk density the more compact the soil. Soil compaction reduces soil pore space, soil water content and infiltration. The excess water will form a puddle or flow as a surface runoff (Anna, 2005). Rajaran and Erbach (1998) reported that the soil bulk density does not change significantly with the drying stress. Froehlich, (1983) as cited by Jonsson and Lindgren (1990) pointed that soil compaction depends on soil texture, moisture, machine pressure (machine size, load, support area, weight, distribution) and number of machine passes.
Many studies reported that the application of heavy machine in forest operations generally increased soil bulk density. Crucial changes may occur on the physical properties particularly the higher bulk density, lower porosity, organic matter content and water holding capacity of the soil because of the compaction (Kamaruzaman and Nik Muhamad, 1992; Rab, 1994, 1996; 2004; Grigal and Batest, 1997; Laffan ,2001; Makinechi et al., 2006). Barber and Romero (1994) found that the use of bulldozers and straight blade for clearing subtropical forest in eastern Bolivia caused significant soil degradation as manifested by 10% to 20% increase in bulk density and 6.2% loss of total porosity at 0-20 cm depth.
Rab (1994) reported that the bulk density in the top and sub soil of disturbed areas were significantly greater than the undisturbed areas. The mean bulk density in the top and sub soil of disturbed areas increased about 33% and 65% respectively compared to the undisturbed areas. Soil compaction would also significantly increased bulk density in the skid trail and the log landing. Laffan (2001) reported that bulk density is 20% higher in the disturbed sites compared to undisturbed sites which used cable logging on steep slopes in Tasmania, Australia.
In Malaysia, Kamaruzaman and Nik Muhamad (1992) reported that the range of bulk density under the five tier classification of soil disturbance in the hill forest is from 1.01 -1.55 g/cm3. Nussbaum et al., (1994) found that the removal of top soil during logging activities in Sabah can lead to soil compaction and low infiltration of water resulting in high bulk density of 1.44 g/cm3 as compared to the bulk density of the top soil of only 0.52 g/cm3. Baharuddin (1995) reported that the bulk density in undisturbed forest soil ranged from 1.08 to 1.18 g/cm3. The bulk density values for soils on the skid trail and logging road were 1.49 g/cm3 and 1.60 g/cm3, respectively. The increase on the skid trail and logging road are 32% and 42%, respectively.
On the other hand, a study by Shukri et al. (1999) reported that forest harvesting using Long Haulage Ground Cable System Technique (LHGCS) resulted in less soil compaction. The average bulk density is 1.1 g/cm3 compared to 1.5 g/cm3 in the tractor logging method.
Kazuhito et al., (2004) reported that the bulk density on steep slope at a Bukit Tarik experimental Watershed, Selangor ranged from 0.56 to 0.63 g/cm3 before logging and 0.72 -0.77 g/cm3 after logging. However, on the gentle slope the bulk density before and after logging is 0.54-0.57 g/m3 and 0.71 to 1.07 g/cm3, respectively.
2.2.3 Soil Moisture Content
Kamaruzaman and Nik Muhamad (1992) found that soil moisture content from logging operation in hill forest for five soil disturbance classes ranged from 12.28-29.65%. Undisturbed Class had the highest soil moisture content of 29.65% followed by Litter Layer Disturbed Class with 23.50%, Top Soil Exposed Class had 19.54%, Subsoil Exposed Class 16.14% and Subsoil Exposed and Compacted or Puddled Class 12.28%. Soil moisture content showed a decreasing trend from undisturbed to compacted or puddled soils.
Baharuddin (1995) reported that the mean available water in an undisturbed forest soil was 151.99 mm/m as compared to 69.4 mm/ m for the skid trail and 63.6 mm/m for logging road. A higher amount of water in the undisturbed area evidently shows that the litter layer retains more water. The presence of a humus layer prevents crust formation and probably reduces evaporation rate, improving soil structure and increase infiltration rate.
A study by Shukri et al.,(1999) reported that forest harvesting using Long Haulage Ground Cable System Technique (LHGCS) had 8% greater soil moisture compared to the tractor logging. This could be due to more canopies opening in the tractor logging as a result of large number of residuals which were removed along the skid trail and logging road. Consequently, there was more direct sunlight reaching the forest floor and promoted a greater rate of evaporation.
2.3 Degradation of River Water Quality
Rivers are important water resource and considered polluted when there are changes in their chemical and physical characteristics that make them unsuitable for consumption. One of the indicators for river health is water quality. According to Mohd Kamil and Abdul Rashid (1999), water quality is defined as the suitability of water in a water body especially a river for a specific use.
Many studies reported that forest harvesting and associated operations have been shown to affect the river water quality in many countries, principally through erosion, runoff and sedimentation (Zulkifli et al.,1987; Zulkifli, 1990; Baharuddin, 1995; Cornish, 2001; Laffan et al., 2001; Inthavy, 2005). Removal of trees, construction of logging roads and log landing exposing the soil to the driving force of rainfall, resulting in acceleration in soil erosion and surface runoff affected the river water quality.
According to Urdabe (1992) soil erosion is minimal when the soil surface is protected by the forest and this will increase slightly when the trees are removed. This is supported by Baharuddin (1995) who reported that soil loss was 13,300 kg/ha/year and 10,100 kg/ha/year for logging road and skid trail compared to 500 kg/ha/year for the undisturbed forest.
Zulkifli et al., (1987) studied the effects of logging on stream water quality. They compared changes in pH, color, conductivity, turbidity and suspended solids in discharge of three watersheds in the hill forest areas of Negeri Sembilan. They found an increase in turbidity and suspended solid concentration as a result of conventional logging during wet season. Hence they concluded that harvesting using tractor logging seriously deteriorated stream water quality parameters.
However, Grayson et al., (1993) reported that forest harvesting does not have a major impact on river water quality. There was an increase in turbidity and suspended solids at baseflow, but these were small in absolute terms and of similar magnitude to the measurement error. The use of gravel reduce sediment production, provided a sufficient depth of material used. By increasing the level of road maintenance, this will increase the traffic load control sediment production rates. But by not doing so, it will cause an approximately 40% of sediment increase. The result indicates that by identifying the areas that produce runoff, it is possible to prevent contaminated runoff reaching the streams. Roads, on the other hand, produce large quantities of sediments, even when well maintained. Carefull consideration of their placement and management is therefore paramount.
Baharuddin et al., (1999) studied the impact of Long Haulage Ground Cable System (LHGCS) on sediment load and water quality in Jengai Forest Reserve, Dungun, Terengganu. There are two catchments area at Jengai Forest Reserve. One catchment area undergo logging activities, while the other catchment functions as a control. Based on 26 months of measurements they found that the mean monthly suspended sediment yield increased 34% after logging but no changes were observed in physical stream water quality except for a slight increase in turbidity of about 10%. However, stream water chemistry changed before and after logging.
Cornish (2001) studied the effects of harvesting, logging road construction and forest regeneration on stream turbidity level in a moist eucalypt forest, Australia. He reported that the construction of permanent road increased the turbidity level, but the increase only persisted in catchment area containing a number of stream crossing. The construction and subsequent use and presence of permanent road provide a source of additional sediments in the streams. The road that generates sediments appeared to reach the stream at stream crossing. A direct connectivity between road and stream is a factor in the supply of additional sediments to drainage.
Mohd Kamil et al., (2001) studied the effects of landuse activities in Pasoh, Negeri Sembilan based on the computation of DOE-WQI and Harkin’s Index. They compared four different types of land use: undisturbed forest, swamp, degraded logged-over forest and agriculture. The water quality chosen for the study included dissolve oxygen (DO), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), total suspended solid(TSS), ammoniacal nitrogen(AN), pH, temperature, electric conductivity and turbidity. They found that all the areas of the stream were under class II according to the Department of Environment- water Quality Index (DOE-WQI). Class II means that the water quality only need conventional treatment for water supply compared to no treatment for class I. They concluded that the water quality was of high quality in the undisturbed forest area.
Samin (2002) also studied the effects of logging on stream water quality before, during and after forest harvesting. He assessed the water quality parameters such as pH, electrical conductivity, temperature, dissolve oxygen, color, turbidity and suspended solids in the discharge of three watersheds in hill forest areas in Deramakot Forest Reserve, Sabah. He observed that after the logging road construction and harvesting had commenced the values of pH, electrical conductivity, temperature, color, turbidity and suspended solids increased. Four months after logging activities stopped the concentration of suspended solid, turbidity, pH, electric conductivity and colour reverted back to normal conditions. This was attributed to the rapid spread of ground vegetation thereby protecting the soil from erosion. He also found that the buffer zone of 5-30 meter width on both sides of the stream was not able to completely control the movement of the sediments into the stream.
There are many parameters in determining river water quality. The parameters normally used depend on the objectives of the study. The Department of Environmental, Malaysia uses six parameters to determine water quality index mainly dissolved oxygen (DO), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), total suspended solid(TSS), ammoniacal nitrogen (AN) and pH. Turbidity is one of the parameters to determine the degradation of water quality by visual observation.
2.3.1 Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
Oxygen is a necessary element to all forms of life. According to Lopes et al., (2005) the concentration of oxygen is one of the main criteria for the assessment of water quality. Oxygen is involved in the main processes occurring in the water column, photosynthesis, organic matter degradation and bacterial nitrification, as well as surface reaeration. The available oxygen in the river body is the main factor for aquatic life in rivers. Several studies reported that the concentration of DO depends on the velocity of flowing river. DO concentrations will increase with increasing velocity of the river flow (Bardalo et al., 2001; Mohd Kamil et al., 2001; Samin, 2002; Jasrul, 2004). In this context, rainfall is an important factor influencing the concentration of DO.
Shahril (2001) conducted a study on river classification in Sungai Tembeling, Sungai Pergau and Sungai Keniang Kecil. He found out that DO concentration is higher at upstream compared to the middle stream and downstream. Jasrul Nizam (2004) studied the effects of highway construction on DO in several rivers along East Coast Highway from Karak to Kuantan. He reported that the mean concentration of DO is 7.66 mg/L with the minimum value of 1.87 mg/L.
Danny (1989) studied the effects of logging road construction on water quality in Sungai Menuap Watershed, Sarawak and reported that the mean concentration of DO in undisturbed forest is 7.94 g/mL and increased to 8.28 mg/L during logging road construction. However, Samin (2001) in his study on the effects of logging road construction and timber harvesting activities in Deramakot Forest Reserve, Sabah reported that the mean DO concentration decreased during and after logging with the concentrations of 4.98 mg/L and 3.07 mg/L respectively compared to the undisturbed forest with a value of 6.51 mg/L.
Mohd Kamil et al., (2001) studied the effects of landuse patterns on the stream water quality in Pasoh, Negeri Sembilan and reported that the mean DO concentration in undisturbed forest, swamp forest, logged-over forest and agriculture area are 6.84 mg/L, 5.98 mg/L, 6.38 mg/L and 6.94 mg/L, respectively. The concentration of DO in undisturbed forest is high because the water body is still clean while the process of photosynthesis by aquatic plants maintains the oxygen content in the water.
2.3.2 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
The concentration of Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) indicates the extent of pollution by biodegradable organic matter present in the water. The BOD test is an important environmental index to determine the relative oxygen requirements of wastewater, effluents and polluted waters. It measures the molecular oxygen utilized during a specified incubation period for the biochemical degradation of organic materials and the oxygen used to oxidize inorganic materials such as sulphides and ferrous ions. It can also be an indicator to measure oxygen used to oxidize reduced forms of nitrogen (nitrogenous demand), unless their oxidation is prevented by an inhibitor (American Public Health Association [APHA], 1999). The BOD concentration depends on the river inputs, season, and temperature (Bardalo et al., 2001; Mohd Kamil et al., 2002; Jasrul, 2004; Lopes et al., 2005).
Jonnalagadda and Mhere (2001) studied water quality of Odzi river in eastern highlands of Zimbabwe. They found that BOD value was low during the dry season (1.5 mg/L) compared to the wet season (2.4 mg/L). Bardalo et al. (2001) in his studies in Bangpakong River, eastern Thailand found that the BOD increased in the dry season (1.36 mg/L) compared to the wet season (1.24 mg/L).
Mohd Kamil et al. (2001) reported that BOD values in undisturbed forest, swamp forest, logged over forest and agriculture area are 0.55 mg/L, 0.96 mg/L, 0.73 mg/L and 61.03 mg/L, respectively. The value of BOD in undisturbed forest is lower because the water body is still clean and will remain clean unless there is increasing organic matter in the water.
2.3.3 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) is defined as the measure of the oxygen equivalent to the organic matter content of a sample that is susceptible to oxidation by a strong chemical oxidant (APHA, 1989). Until now, COD which can indicate the level of pollution for water contaminated by reductive pollutants is the main determinant used to assess organic pollution in aqueous systems and is one of the most important parameters in water monitoring (Yonggang and Zeyu, 2003). Bardalo et al. (2001) in their studies in Banggpakong River, eastern Thailand reported that the COD increased dramatically in the dry season from 27.5 mg/L to 68.5 mg/L.
Mohd Kamil et al. (2001) reported that the values of COD are higher in agriculture area (18.0 mg/L), followed by logged-over forest (13.8mg/L), swamp forest (10.5 mg/L), and undisturbed forest (5.83 mg/L). They also reported that the values of COD increased during the dry season because of the low flow and reduced dilution of chemicals in the water. According to Jasrul (2004), the concentration of COD in the construction of east coast highway from Karak to Kuantan was between 2.60 – 16.20 mg/L. Generally the value of COD increased because of decomposition of organic matter. In undisturbed forest, the COD is lower because the water is still clean and not polluted.
2.3.4 Ammoniacal Nitrogen
Nitrogen is an essential nutrient for plant growth, normally comprising about 12-14% of the mass of the cell protein. Its availability to any particular type of organism, however, depends on the chemical form in which it is present. The form of nitrogen in the environment ranges from organic and inorganic such as ammonium nitrogen, nitrogen gas, nitrites and nitrates. Ammonia may be produced from the organically bound nitrogen by extra-cellular biochemical action on dead plant and animal tissues and animal fecal matter, by endogenous respiration of living bacteria cell, and from dead and lysed cells. The general term, ammonification, has been applied to the release of ammonia from organic matter (Barnes and Bliss, 1983).
Jasrul (2004) reported that the concentration of ammoniacal nitrogen in the river along the east coast highway is from 0.04 to 0.5 mg/L. Mohd Kamil et al., (2001) found that the concentration of ammoniacal nitrogen is higher in swamp forest with the concentration of 0.17 mg/L compared to 0.03, 0.02, 0.01 for agriculture area, logged-over forest and undisturbed forest, respectively. The decomposition of leaves and other plant debris by microorganisms are believed to have contributed more nitrogen to the water. Sources of nitrogen include the fixation of nitrogen gas by certain bacteria and plants, the addition of organic matter to water bodies, and small amounts from the weathering of nitrogen rocks. Organic N breaks down into ammonia which eventually becomes oxidized to nitrate nitrogen (Barnes and Bliss, 1983).
2.3.5 pH
The pH of the water serves as an index to pollution which shows the degree of acid or base forming chemicals. However, pH by itself is not an absolute measure of pollution or contamination by natural solutes (Samin, 2001). The pH value of acidic water varies from 0 to 7 and that of alkaline water between 7 to14, while neutral water has a value of 7. The measurement of pH is one of the most important and frequently used test in water chemistry. It is the symbol of a scale, numbered from 0 to 14, that rates water solutions according to their acidity or alkalinity (Elvina and Mohd Kamil, 2004). According to Jonnalagadda and Mhere, (2001) unpolluted streams normally show a near neutral or slightly alkaline pH. The pH is slightly alkaline due to effluents from the fish. The pH value less than 7 is due to the leachates and runoffs.
Danny (1989) reported that the mean pH value in undisturbed forest is 5.37 and increased to 5.65 during the construction of logging road. Zulkifli et al.(1987) also reported that the value of pH in undisturbed forest is less than the disturbed forest. The mean pH value in undisturbed forest is 6.1 compared to 6.7 in disturbed forest. During the wet season the pH value is 6.0 and increased during the dry season. However, Mohd Kamil et al. (2001) reported that the pH value in undisturbed forests is 6.0 and higher than in the logged-over forest, swamp forest and agriculture area.
2.3.6 Total Suspended Solids (TSS)
Suspended solids are the solids that can be filtered by a 1.2 µm membrane filter. Any particle passing the filter is considered dissolved, and any particle retained is considered suspended. The sum of the dissolved and suspended solid is the total soil sediment. Total Suspended solid (TSS) is the sum of the suspended solid (Tchobanoglous and Schroeder, 1987). TSS may include both organic and inorganic materials. The inorganic fraction is made up largely of silt, sand and clay soil particles, while the organic fraction may be either living or dead organic matter (Darrell, 1971).
Season influences the concentration of TSS. Jonnalagadda and Mhere (2001) reported that the TSS increased in wet season and decreased in the dry season. The highest value of TSS in a wet season is 107 mg/L and the lowest is 40 mg/L in the dry season. In Bukit Berembun Forest Reserve, Zulkifli et al., (1987) studied the effects of selective logging on physical stream water quality between three watershed areas in a hill tropical forest. They reported that the TSS was lower during the dry season and higher in the wet season. The mean TSS during the dry season is 14.29 mg/L and dramatically increased to 73.29 mg/L during the wet season.
The comparative study between undisturbed forest, swamp forest, logged over forest and agriculture area by Mohd Kamil et al. (2001) shows that the concentration of TSS is 1.42, 4.08, 2.50 and 6.42 mg/L, respectively. In undisturbed forest and logged over forest, the concentration of TSS is lower because the soil surface is protected by vegetative cover. TSS values are higher in downstream compared to the upper stream because all the sediments produced at the upper stream accumulate at the downstream (Mohd Kamil et al., 2001).
2.3.7 Turbidity
Turbidity is an indication of apparent color of water due to the presence of suspended inorganic matter such as silt and clay (Husain, 1990). Turbidity reduces light penetration caused by particulate solids (Darrell, 1971). According to Bardalo et al. (2001), turbidity level is high due to the runoff from surrounding agriculture and other farming activities. The water transparency decreased significantly during the dry season with a mean turbidity of 69.9 NTU become 30.9 NTU in the wet season. Cornish (2001) studied the effects of roading, harvesting and forest regeneration on stream turbidity level in a moist eucalyptus forest, New South Wales, Australia. He reported that turbidity level was higher in forest harvesting areas either without regeneration or with regeneration compared to the undisturbed areas.
Danny (1989) reported that the turbidity mean level in undisturbed forest was 8.7 NTU and increased to 60.1 NTU during construction of logging road. He also compared the effects of tractor harvesting on stream turbidity between dry season and wet season and found that the stream turbidity in the dry season (35 NTU) had increased during the wet season (287 NTU).
Samin (2002) compared the turbidity between the dry and wet seasons. He reported that the levels of turbidity during the dry season are 7.02, 8.73 and 6.53 NTU for before, during and after logging, respectively. The level of turbidity increased during the wet season with means of 88.51, 174.31 and 110.21 NTU.
Turbidity is higher during the wet season and lower during the dry season because of the rainfall influencing runoff, erosion and sedimentation. In undisturbed forest, the values of turbidity is low compared to disturbed forest due to the protection of soil surface by the vegetative cover and only a small amount of runoff and erosion flow into the streams.
2.3.8 Water Quality Index
The Water Quality Index (WQI) is a mathematical instrument used to transform large quantities of water quality data into a single number which represents the water quality level (Nives, 1999; Jonnalagadda and Mhere, 2001). WQI provides a simple and understandable tool for managers and decision makers on the quality and possible uses of a given water body .The first WQI was developed in the United States by Horton (1965) and applied in Europe since the 1970s (Bardalo et al., 2001).
The parameters selected for the calculation of WQI is through the combined judgement of a panel of water quality experts. Water quality evaluation (WQE) is calculated by summing up individual quality ratings and weighting these parameters in total quality evaluation. The highest value of water quality is 100 score (Bordalo et al., 2001; Nives, 1999; DOE, 2004).
Different countries use different parameters. For example, Scottish WQI use nine parameters such as biochemical oxygen demand, dissolved oxygen, fecal coliform bacteria, pH, temperature, total nitrate, total phosphorus, total solids and turbidity (Nives, 1999). Bordalo et al. (2001) used eight parameters to determine the WQI in Bangpakong River, Thailand. These are biochemical oxygen demand, dissolved oxygen, fecal coliform bacteria, pH, temperature, total phosphorus, total solids and turbidity.
There are two methods to determine water quality index in Malaysia. These are the Department of Environment- Water Quality Index (DOE-WQI) and Harkin’s Index. The DOE – WQI is an opinion-poll formula. A panel of experts was consulted on the choice of parameters and on the weightage to be assigned to each parameter. Harkin’s WQI Index is an objective method based on Kendall’s nonparametric multivariate ranking procedure (Harkins, 1974). This index follows a statistical approach for analyzing water quality based on the rank order of observations compared to a set of “control values”, which are usually a set of water quality standards or recommended limits. The index does not set parameter requirements and is therefore very flexible in application since only those parameters of interest to the index that user needs to be included in the computations (Mohd Kamil et al., 2001).
The calculations of DOE-WQI are performed not on the parameters themselves but on their subindices where the values were obtained from a series of equations shown in Appendix 1. These are best-fit equations obtained from rating curves. The subindices for the chosen parameters are named SIDO, SIBOD, SICOD, SIAN, SISS and SIPH, and the formula used in the calculation is:
WQI = 0.22* SIDO + 0.19* SIBOD + 0.16* SICOD + 0.15* SIAN
+ 0.16* SISS + 0.12* SIPH
The classification of water quality according to DOE-WQI is divided into six classes according to the usage of water using Interim National Water Quality Standards as shown in Table 2.2.
Mohd Kamil et al. (2001) reported that the DOE-WQI in an undisturbed forest, swamp forest, logged over forest and agriculture are classified as Class II where the water supply required conventional treatment before used. However, the values of DOE-WQI are higher in undisturbed forest followed by disturbed forest, swamp forest and agriculture area. They also reported that the stream water quality depends on the season. Rainfall affects water quality by decreasing infiltration and increasing runoff and soil erosion.
The main species dominating the area are Seraya (Shorea curtisii), Meranti Melantai (Shorea macroptera Dyer.), Meranti Tembaga (Shorea leprosula Mig.), Meranti Kepong (Shorea ovalis Korth), Meranti Rambai Daun (Shorea accuminata Dyer) and Meranti Sarang Punai (Shorea parvifolia Dyer). The main species other than Meranti are Mersawa (Anisoptera spp), merawan (Hopea spp) and Keruing (Dipterocarpus spp). The main non–Dipterocarp species comprise of Kelat (Syzygium spp), Merpauh (Swintonia spp), Penarahan (Myristicaea spp) and Medang ( Lauraceae spp ).
One of the main reasons that caused changes in soil texture might be due to soil surface erosion. The process of soil erosion is unavoidable because it happens naturally. This was reported by Baharuddin (1995) and Hartanto et al. (2003) where soil erosion still happens either in undisturbed forest or logging areas. Soil erosion process will remove clay, silt and sand through surface run-off thus change the soil texture. The effects of forest harvesting on soil texture was also reported by other studies. According to Makineci et al.,(2006) in his study in Belgrade, Turkey, the values of sand, silt and clay in the skid trail are 52.13, 25.55 and 20.32 % as compared to the undisturbed area with values of 48.84, 21.99 and 29.17%, respectively. Baharuddin (1995) reported that the soil loss was 13,300 kg/ha/year and 10,100 kg/ha/year for the logging road and skid trail compared to 500 kg/ha /year for the undisturbed area. However, studies in Sabah showed that surface erosion losses from harvesting areas are quite low at less than 200 kg/ha/year (Malmer and Grip,1990). According to Hartanto et al., (2003) the difference between logging system can only be significant for soil loss but not to runoff. This may due to the fact that runoff is strongly determined by rainfall.
The conditions of soil surface before harvesting phase are sheltered by tree canopy and litter layer. The tree canopy and litter on the soil surface acted as a buffer or filter to the direct rainfall. During forest harvesting, various activities which include feeder road and skid trail construction, cutting down trees and log disposal will initiate canopy opening and soil surface disturbance and this leads to soil erosion. Sidle et al., (2006) reported that logging road activities contributed the highest erosion compared to other land use. The higher percentage of sand during and after logging was probably due to the removal of fine fraction (silt and clay). Baharuddin (1995) believed that soil loss is highest on the logging road where the soil surface was exposed. This is because of the direct rainfall to the soil surface on the logging road without a buffer or filter compared to skid trail or undisturbed forest. Higher soil loss was detected during harvesting and it was reduced due to re-establishment of ground cover.
From t-test analysis, as shown in Table 4.1 also indicated that there was no significant difference detected among the sand, silt and clay between the two altitudes. This concludes that the elevation did not significantly affect soil texture for each harvesting phase. Figure 4.1 shows the soil texture in relation to elevation and harvesting phase.
The effects of forest harvesting on soil bulk density has already been reported by various other studies. Rab (1994) in his study in Eucalptus regnan forest, Southeastern Australia reported that bulk density increased by 33% to 65% compared to that in undisturbed forest. Merino et al. (1998) indicated that bulk density increased by 17% after whole tree harvesting in his study of Pinus radiate plantation in Northern Spain. In Malaysia, Baharuddin (1995) reported that forest harvesting that applied conventional logging in Tekam Forest Reserved Pahang produced a higher value in bulk density especially when involved in using skid trail and logging road. The values were reported to be 1.49 and 1.60 g/cm3, respectively.
Regarding the elevation analysis using t- test, the impact of forest harvesting using RIMBAKA technique on bulk density was quite similar. Both altitudinal levels showed no significant difference in bulk density value in each harvesting phase (Table 4.3). This is because the four main elements (slope class, the number of trees harvested, soil texture and method of harvesting) have a similar pattern for both altitudes. This scenario also occurred in other places where many researchers found that forest harvesting from different altitudes has no impact on bulk density. The increasing value in bulk density after forest harvesting very much depends on many factors such as soil type, soil movement, amount of timber removed, type of heavy machine used, movement of heavy machine in the logging areas, slope and site characteristics (Kamaruzaman, 1991; Baharuddin, 1995; Merino et al., 1998; Shukri et al., 1999; Andrian et al., 2005; Demir et al., 2006).
Water Quality Index
The site condition is an important factor that relates to river water quality status and the results are showed in Table 4.9. The statistical analysis showed that the undisturbed forest has better river water quality status compared to the logging and road crossing areas either during or after forest operations (P≤0.01). At the same time the weather conditions also play an important role in influencing the river water quality status for the three areas (undisturbed, logging and road crossing) (P≤0.01).
Based on the WQI values, the worst river water quality status was recorded at the road crossing area compared to the undisturbed and logging areas due to active usage of the area because the road has to be regularly maintained through surface grading and the surface is almost 100% exposed to direct rainfall.
Figure 4.6 shows the profile of mean WQI for different site conditions recorded from 21st November 2005 to 19th September 2006. The figure shows that the rivers in the logged and road crossing areas has lower quality status compared to undisturbed areas and the profile changes with seasons as indicated along x-axis.
According to Baharuddin (1995) surface runoff from forest road was nine times higher than the undisturbed forest and six times higher than the skid road. Besides that, rainfall distribution also influenced the turbidity value between those three locations and between phases of forest harvesting.
Figures 4.7 and 4.8 illustrate the trend of turbidity and TSS between phases of forest harvesting among the undisturbed forest, logging areas and road crossing. The value of turbidity were found higher at the road crossing area followed by the logging areas and undisturbed forest. The values of turbidity were low before harvesting but higher during harvesting. However, the values of turbidity decreased to normal value after harvesting. These results are similar with the studies conducted by Gomi et al. (2006) where the sediment in the river was related to land disturbance for the road and skid trail.
In 2006, the total forested land in Malaysia is 19.52 million hectares (59.50% of total land area), with 5.88 (44. 7 %) million hectares in Peninsular Malaysia, 4.40 (59.7%) million hectares in Sabah and 9.24 (75.1%) million hectares in Sarawak. From the 19.52 million hectares of forested land, 17.40 million hectares are dry inland forest or dipterocarp forest while the remaining 1.54 million hectares and 0.58 million hectares are swamp forest and mangrove forest, respectively. In order to preserve the forest resources as a renewable resource, 14.39 million ha or 73 % of the forest area have been gazetted as a Permanent Reserved Forest (PRF) for sustainable management. The area of PRF in Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah and Sarawak are 4.70 million hectares, 3.59 million hectares and 6.10 million hectares, respectively (Abdul Rahman, 2008).
The PRF in Malaysia has been systematically managed since the beginning of the century. The forests are managed into three broad forest types such as dipterocarp forest, swamp forest and mangrove forest. There are two concepts in managing the dipterocarp forest in Peninsular Malaysia, namely Modified Malayan Uniform System (MUS) and Selective Management System (SMS). The aim of MUS and SMS is to manage the forest on a sustainable basis. However, the principle behind the system is different. Under the selective logging system there is an intention to harvest the timber at the end of the 30 years cutting cycle while under the uniform system one has to wait a complete rotation of 55 years or more until the regeneration has grown into harvestable trees (FDPM, 2003b).
The MUS consists of removing the matured crop in a single felling of all trees below 45 cm diameter at breast height (dbh) for all species while SMS entails selection of optimum management regimes based on pre-felling inventory data with the minimum cutting regime of 50 cm for dipterocarps, except Chengal (Neobalanocarpus heimii) where the cutting limit would be above 60 cm dbh and 45 cm for non-dipterocarps (FDPM, 2003b).
The total forested areas to be managed under SMS and MUS are estimated at 1.3 million hectares and 1.54 million hectares respectively or 2.84 hectares of productive forests of the PFR (FDPM, 2005a). To ensure that the forest is better conserved and sustained, the annual coupe in Peninsular Malaysia has been scaled down under the 6th Malaysia Plan (1991-1995), 7th Malaysia Plan (1996-2000) and 8th Malaysia Plan (2001-2005) to 52,250 ha, 46,040 ha and 42,870 ha per annum, respectively (Azmi and Yap, 2004).
1. 2 Problem Statement and Objectives of the study
The forestry sector has significantly contributed to the socio-economic development of the country. In 2005, the forestry sector and wood products (including wood and rattan furniture) contributed about RM21.5 billion of the Malaysian Gross Domestic Product. This accounted for 4.0% of the total gross export receipts of Malaysia at f.o.b of RM533.8 billion (FDPM, 2005a). However, harvesting in the hill forests draws the public’s attention and has been blamed for environmental problems especially land slide, soil erosion, flooding and degradation of water quality. Currently, most of the harvesting is in the hill forests because of the reduction in areas of the lowland forest mainly cleared for agriculture, industrial and urban expansion since the1960s (Daniel and Kulaisingham, 1974; Wan Razali and Abdul Rahim, 1987). The hill forests are sources of water supply in the country where most of the river systems are located. According to Department of Drainage and Irrigation (2004) Malaysia has 189 river systems of which 89 are in Peninsular Malaysia, 22 in Sarawak and 78 in Sabah. According to Zul Mukhshar (2000), 97% percent of the water for agriculture, industries and domestic use is derived from streams and rivers that flow from the forest.
Forest harvesting in the hill forest in Peninsular Malaysia is mainly a ground-based system with the combination of crawler tractors and winch. Many studies recognized that forest operations using heavy machine in the hill forests affect the physical soil properties through soil compaction, increased run-off and erosion and degradation of river water quality (Borhan et al., 1987; Zulkifli, 1990; Zulkifli et al., 1987,1993; Kamaruzaman and Nik Muhamad, 1992; Baharuddin, 1995; Cornish, 2001; Mohd Kamil et al., 2001; Laffan et al., 2001; Rab, 2004).
In an attempt to reduce soil disturbance and degradation of river water quality, Rimbaka Timber Harvester (Rimbaka) machine was introduced as an alternative to the crawler tractor. Rimbaka is a modified cabling system to winch the felled logged for minimized movement of heavy machines. A study of forest harvesting using Rimbaka technique to extract logs in the hill forest is important as an alternative to the ground-based system. The Rimbaka selected in this study can be used as a basis for comparing the impact of Rimbaka and ground-based logging on physical soil properties and river water quality.
The general objective of the study is to quantify the effects of forest harvesting using Rimbaka Timber Harvester (Rimbaka) system on the river water quality and selected physical soil properties. The specific objectives are to:
a) assess selected river water quality parameters and Water Quality Index (DOE-WQI) at different forest operation stages.
b) determine the relationship between turbidity and total suspended solids (TSS) before, during and after harvesting.
c) evaluate the change in physical soil properties at different forest operations.
1. 3 Scope and Limitations of the Study
The duration of the study was 11 months which conducted before, during and after forest harvesting. The studies on physical soil properties are limited to five parameters which are texture, particle density, bulk density, porosity, and soil moisture content. The water quality index parameters measured are dissolved oxygen (DO), chemical oxygen demand (COD), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), total suspended solids (TSS), ammoniacal nitrogen (AN) and pH. Other parameter such as turbidity is also being measured. For this study, water quality index and measured parameters such as turbidity and total suspended solid are used as indicator to evaluate the changes of water quality before, during and after harvesting. The comparisons also involved conditions such as dry and wet season. The undisturbed forest, logging area and road construction across the stream are also being considered. This study was conducted from November 2005 to September 2006 at Compartment 35, Gunung Benum Forest Reserved, Raub, Pahang.
2.1 Reduced Impact Logging
Forest harvesting operation involves three main activities mainly tree felling and log cutting, extracting of logs to temporary log landing and transportation of logs to primary log landing. In the conventional method, trees were felled using axe or hand sawing, buck into suitable length and size before being pulled out by animals (FAO, 1973). The technique of forest harvesting has changed over time. Chainsaws are used to fell the trees and heavy machines are introduced to replace animals for log extraction. The method of harvesting depends on many aspects such as physical characteristics of the environment, infrastructure, species composition, labor availability, cost and technology. There are many techniques of timber extraction which were introduced such as manual labor, animals, trucks, farm tractors, wheel skidders, tracked skidders, bulldozers, railways, cable systems (portable winch, gravity cable ways, high lead yarding and skyline system), helicopters, balloons, airships and loaders (Borhan et al., 1987; Jonsson and Lindgren, 1990; Kamaruzaman and Nik Muhamad, 1992; Shamsudin et al., 1999 and Danny, 2001).
In Peninsular Malaysia, timber harvesting using ground-based system with the combination of crawler tractors and winch lorries has been the common practice. This technique was introduced in the 1960s to replace the extraction of logs using buffalos and elephants (FAO, 1973). The combination of crawler tractor and winch lorries was proven successful in gentle terrain of lowland forest. At present, most of the forest harvesting areas are in hilly areas and are still using a combination of crawler tractors and winch lorries because of the greater production per working day (Saharudin et al., 1999).
Many studies in Malaysia and other countries reported that forest harvesting using heavy machines can cause significant and wide spread soil disturbance (Borhan et al, 1987; Kamaruzaman and Nik Muhamad, 1986,1992; Rab, 1994, 1996; Laffan et al., 2001). Forest harvesting and associated operations have also affected stream water quality through erosion and sedimentation (Baharuddin, 1988, 1995; Grayson et al., 1993; Cornish, 2001; Mohd Kamil et al., 2001; Inthavy, 2005).
In general, the effects of forest harvesting can be reduced by the adoption of Reduced Impact Logging (RIL) technique (Anon., 2003b). The term “RIL” was first used by Pinard et al. in 1995. It stands for efficient timber harvesting technique that minimizes the damage to the forest ecosystem (Jonkers, 2001). According to Richard (1999), RIL is defined as the proper implementation of a set of harvesting techniques which results in lower level of incidental damage to both the residual stand and soil, reduced soil erosion and improved water quality, so that the productive and functional capacity of the residual after logging is sustained. There are three main components of RIL namely pre-harvest operation, during harvesting operation and post-harvest operation.
Prior to harvesting, a pre-felling forest inventory is normally conducted to provide information on species distribution, timber stock, geology status, elevation and terrain. The information on forest stocking is to determine the minimum cutting regime for tree marking. Tree marking is to identify and to mark all trees for harvesting. In tree marking, all the information on the site such as river buffer zone, forest roads such as feeder road and skid trails are marked on the ground and also on the map. The activities are usually performed during forest harvesting, feeder road construction, followed by skid trail construction, log landing construction, felling the trees and cutting the trees to the log sizes. The logs were extracted from the stump to the temporary log landing followed by transportation using winch lorries to the primary log landing (FDPM, 2003). The activities after forest harvesting involve the rehabilitation of feeder roads, skid trail, log landings and logging camps. The rehabilitation activities are carried out to ensure environmental stability of the logging area after the completion of the harvesting operation.
2.1.1 Forest Road
Forest road is an important part of forest harvesting operation to ensure a smooth flow of logs from the forest. Before forest harvesting is done, road planning must be completed and subsequently constructed according to the specifications in the logging permit and proper forest engineering standards to control density and to minimize soil disturbances and stream sedimentation (FDPM, 1999).
Gullison and Hardner (1993) reported that knowledge on road design ia an important component of forest management. Their studies and computer simulation showed how road designs can be used to minimize damage to the forest during logging. In order to minimize the impact of compaction, the forest manager should minimize the area of skid trail and rehabilitate the areas (Rab, 1996). Poorly located, constructed or maintained road can cause major water degradation with serious and long term social implications to the affected communities (Wells, 2001). According to Jonsson and Lindgren (1990) the construction of forest roads is blamed for the negative impacts of forestry activities such as erosion and other damaging environmental consequences. Yet some of these effects can be controlled by proper planning.
There are four classes of logging roads in Peninsular Malaysia mainly primary road, secondary road, feeder road and skid trail. The main and secondary roads are long haul transportation systems connected to the public road to harvesting area while feeder road and skid trail are short haul transportation in the harvesting area (FDPM, 1999). The types of the forest road in Peninsular Malaysia are shown in figure 2.1.
2.1.2 Log Landing
Log landing is an area where logs are assembled before loaded into lorries to be transported to sawmills. The proper construction of log landing is to minimize its size in order to reduce the loss of harvestable forest area, as well as to prevent sedimentation of watercourse. The log-landing density and surface area can be minimized by proper planning of roads and landings prior to logging. Heninrich (1995) suggested that log landing area should be located on slight sloping ground-based. The best sites for log landing are in the open areas away from streams or normally at least 30 meters radius from any running stream. In the United States, the minimum radius of log landing is around 30-40 m but it depends on the size of logging setting. The log landing is important to minimize the effects of soil disturbance without undue adverse effect on the efficiency of yarding and operation (Chua, 1986). Rab (1996) reported that log landing in Australia occupies 3% - 4% of the harvesting area. In Peninsular Malaysia, the areas of log landing do not exceed 0.5 ha for every 100 ha of the area to be harvested. The log landing should be at least 50 meters away from permanent watercourse (FDPM, 2003b).
2.1.3 Buffer Zone
A buffer zone is defined as an area of land along a stream, left undisturbed during forest operations. Both sides of the river are sensitive areas especially for the movement of heavy machines and felled trees. The purpose of the buffer zone is to provide an undisturbed area on both sides of the stream to protect the stream from soil erosion and as a filter to the stream to maintain water quality (Bren, 1998).
The concept of buffer zone has been used in the forestry sector for a long time and widely adopted in many countries including Australia, Canada, New Zealand and Malaysia and United States (Pearce and Hamilton, 1986; O’ Loughlin et al., 1990; California Department of Forestry, 1992 as cited in Abdul Rahim et al., 1993). Gilmour (1977) recommended that the width of the river buffer zone should be at least 20 meters for both sides of the stream. The most commonly recommended width ranges from 20 to 30 meters on both sides of the stream (Abdul Rahim et al., 1993). The minimum width of river buffer zone in Peninsular Malaysia is 20 meters but this depends on slope and calculated as: Buffer width (m) = (7.6 + 0.6 x slope %). Table 2.1 shows the width of the buffer zone in Peninsular Malaysia.
Protection areas-harvesting is not allowed in this area
Protection areas
Sources (FDPM, 1999)
Effects of forest harvesting on soil properties
According to Abdul Rahim (2004) the soil is in the state of equilibrium. Acceleration occurs when the soil is disturbed by harvesting activities. Soil disturbance by the forest harvesting operations depends on various factors such as inherent soil properties, soil moisture content, topography, technique of harvesting, and forest conservation practices (Laffan et al., 2001). Various techniques of forest harvesting have been studied to determine the extent of soil disturbance for ground-based, cable logging and helicopter logging. The comparison of soil disturbance between cable logging and conventional logging in Tasmania (Williamson, 1990) and in Victoria (Rab, 1994, 1996) showed that cable-logging has significantly reduced surface soil disturbance. Approximately about 11% of the cable-logged coupe has the topsoil disturbed compared to between 60% and 80% of the coupes in the Victorian central highlands where conventional logging was practised .
Rab (1994) studied the changes in physical soil properties associated with clear felling of Eucalyptus regnans forest in Southern Australia using mechanical skid trail of log to a landing using tyre skidder and flexible steel track skidder. It was found that 87% of the area had some soil disturbance. About two thirds of the logging areas were disturbed by the logging activities. Skid trail and log landing contribute to the soil disturbance of about 25% and 5%, respectively. The most common disturbance was in the topsoil (65%).
Borhan et al. (1987) compared soil surface damages in Tekam Forest Reserve, Jengka, Pahang by highlead yarding system with a crawler tractor logging. They reported that the total area of surface damaged by highlead yarding system was higher (23%) compared to tractor logging (18%). A comparative study of helicopter harvesting and tractor harvesting by Danny (2001) reported that helicopter harvesting created canopy opening and skid trail of 4% - 11% compared to tractor harvesting (15.91%). A higher canopy allows more direct rainfall to the soil surface hence resulting in higher erosion.
Kamaruzaman (1992) reported a major ground disturbance on crawler tractor-logged areas in Tekam Forest Reserve, Pahang. Based on his observation, the total percentage of areas disturbed increased by the logging operation during wet season on skid trail caused by skidding. The moving logged being pulled by the tractor tore out vegetation, displaced litter and dug into the soil along the path. This problem became more serious on steep topography. Skid trail occupies the largest percentage ranging from 34.2 to 52.1% of the total disturbed area.
According to Baharuddin (1995) the effects of crawler tractor logging in Jengka Experimental Basin in Tekam Forest Reserve, Jerantut, Pahang significantly changed the soil physical properties. The infiltration rate was higher in undisturbed forest soil compared to the skid trail and logging road. The higher the infiltration rate the lower is the surface runoff resulting in reduced erosion.
Severe erosion occurred during the first year after logging and was less severe in the second year. Slope is one of the factors influencing soil erosion from the skid trail and logging road during the first year after logging operations. The amount of soil erosion can be reduced if the gradient of the skid trail and logging roads does not exceed 20 percent.
Shukri et al. (1999) studied the impact of forest harvesting using Long Haulage Ground Cable System (LHGCS) and tractor logging on soil properties. No skid trails were constructed in the harvesting area using LHGCS. They found that the LHGCS had less soil compaction and greater soil moisture compared to the conventional method. These results clearly showed that the movement of heavy machine causes severe soil compaction.
The effects of various techniques of forest harvesting on soil disturbance also influence the physical soil properties. Soil physical properties mainly texture, particle density, bulk density, porosity and soil moisture content are dominant factors which affect plant growth. These properties determine the availability of oxygen in soil, the mobility of water into or through the soil profile, and the ease of the root penetration (Duane and Raymond, 2004).
2.2.1 Soil Texture
Soil consists of soil particles of varying sizes and can be separated into sand, silt and clay. Sand, silt and clay contents are the most fundamental soil physical properties and are widely used in soil classification. Naime et al. (2001) classified soil particles, according to their size such as clay (<2 µm), silt (from 2 to 50 µm) and sand (from 50 µm to 2 mm). The knowledge of soil particle size distribution provides information to predict water movement in the soil and its vulnerability to erosion.
Baharuddin (1995) reported that silt and clay in the logging road were significantly higher than that in the skid trail and undisturbed forest. The logging road and skid trail were located on exposed area without vegetative cover to protect soil surface from the impact of rain drops compared to undisturbed forest. Rab (1996) studied the effects of physical soil properties on logging and slash burning in the Eucalyptus forest of southeastern Australia, He reported that in the burnt areas, there is no difference in particle size distribution of topsoil profiles compared to the undisturbed forest.
Makineci et al. (2006) studied the effects on soil texture in the long-term harvesting on skid trail in fir (Abis bornmulleeriana Matt) plantation forest in Belgrade forest, Turkey. They reported that the composition of sand, silt and clay in the skid trail is 52.13%, 27.55% and 20.32% respectively compared to undisturbed area with the composition of 48.84%, 21.99% and 29.17%, respectively. The reason for the difference in the silt and clay might be due to the surface flow and soil erosion.
2.2.2 Bulk Density and Porosity
Bulk density is the parameter used to measure soil compaction. It refers to the mass of soil and pore space per unit volume of soil on oven dry basis. The higher the bulk density the more compact the soil. Soil compaction reduces soil pore space, soil water content and infiltration. The excess water will form a puddle or flow as a surface runoff (Anna, 2005). Rajaran and Erbach (1998) reported that the soil bulk density does not change significantly with the drying stress. Froehlich, (1983) as cited by Jonsson and Lindgren (1990) pointed that soil compaction depends on soil texture, moisture, machine pressure (machine size, load, support area, weight, distribution) and number of machine passes.
Many studies reported that the application of heavy machine in forest operations generally increased soil bulk density. Crucial changes may occur on the physical properties particularly the higher bulk density, lower porosity, organic matter content and water holding capacity of the soil because of the compaction (Kamaruzaman and Nik Muhamad, 1992; Rab, 1994, 1996; 2004; Grigal and Batest, 1997; Laffan ,2001; Makinechi et al., 2006). Barber and Romero (1994) found that the use of bulldozers and straight blade for clearing subtropical forest in eastern Bolivia caused significant soil degradation as manifested by 10% to 20% increase in bulk density and 6.2% loss of total porosity at 0-20 cm depth.
Rab (1994) reported that the bulk density in the top and sub soil of disturbed areas were significantly greater than the undisturbed areas. The mean bulk density in the top and sub soil of disturbed areas increased about 33% and 65% respectively compared to the undisturbed areas. Soil compaction would also significantly increased bulk density in the skid trail and the log landing. Laffan (2001) reported that bulk density is 20% higher in the disturbed sites compared to undisturbed sites which used cable logging on steep slopes in Tasmania, Australia.
In Malaysia, Kamaruzaman and Nik Muhamad (1992) reported that the range of bulk density under the five tier classification of soil disturbance in the hill forest is from 1.01 -1.55 g/cm3. Nussbaum et al., (1994) found that the removal of top soil during logging activities in Sabah can lead to soil compaction and low infiltration of water resulting in high bulk density of 1.44 g/cm3 as compared to the bulk density of the top soil of only 0.52 g/cm3. Baharuddin (1995) reported that the bulk density in undisturbed forest soil ranged from 1.08 to 1.18 g/cm3. The bulk density values for soils on the skid trail and logging road were 1.49 g/cm3 and 1.60 g/cm3, respectively. The increase on the skid trail and logging road are 32% and 42%, respectively.
On the other hand, a study by Shukri et al. (1999) reported that forest harvesting using Long Haulage Ground Cable System Technique (LHGCS) resulted in less soil compaction. The average bulk density is 1.1 g/cm3 compared to 1.5 g/cm3 in the tractor logging method.
Kazuhito et al., (2004) reported that the bulk density on steep slope at a Bukit Tarik experimental Watershed, Selangor ranged from 0.56 to 0.63 g/cm3 before logging and 0.72 -0.77 g/cm3 after logging. However, on the gentle slope the bulk density before and after logging is 0.54-0.57 g/m3 and 0.71 to 1.07 g/cm3, respectively.
2.2.3 Soil Moisture Content
Kamaruzaman and Nik Muhamad (1992) found that soil moisture content from logging operation in hill forest for five soil disturbance classes ranged from 12.28-29.65%. Undisturbed Class had the highest soil moisture content of 29.65% followed by Litter Layer Disturbed Class with 23.50%, Top Soil Exposed Class had 19.54%, Subsoil Exposed Class 16.14% and Subsoil Exposed and Compacted or Puddled Class 12.28%. Soil moisture content showed a decreasing trend from undisturbed to compacted or puddled soils.
Baharuddin (1995) reported that the mean available water in an undisturbed forest soil was 151.99 mm/m as compared to 69.4 mm/ m for the skid trail and 63.6 mm/m for logging road. A higher amount of water in the undisturbed area evidently shows that the litter layer retains more water. The presence of a humus layer prevents crust formation and probably reduces evaporation rate, improving soil structure and increase infiltration rate.
A study by Shukri et al.,(1999) reported that forest harvesting using Long Haulage Ground Cable System Technique (LHGCS) had 8% greater soil moisture compared to the tractor logging. This could be due to more canopies opening in the tractor logging as a result of large number of residuals which were removed along the skid trail and logging road. Consequently, there was more direct sunlight reaching the forest floor and promoted a greater rate of evaporation.
2.3 Degradation of River Water Quality
Rivers are important water resource and considered polluted when there are changes in their chemical and physical characteristics that make them unsuitable for consumption. One of the indicators for river health is water quality. According to Mohd Kamil and Abdul Rashid (1999), water quality is defined as the suitability of water in a water body especially a river for a specific use.
Many studies reported that forest harvesting and associated operations have been shown to affect the river water quality in many countries, principally through erosion, runoff and sedimentation (Zulkifli et al.,1987; Zulkifli, 1990; Baharuddin, 1995; Cornish, 2001; Laffan et al., 2001; Inthavy, 2005). Removal of trees, construction of logging roads and log landing exposing the soil to the driving force of rainfall, resulting in acceleration in soil erosion and surface runoff affected the river water quality.
According to Urdabe (1992) soil erosion is minimal when the soil surface is protected by the forest and this will increase slightly when the trees are removed. This is supported by Baharuddin (1995) who reported that soil loss was 13,300 kg/ha/year and 10,100 kg/ha/year for logging road and skid trail compared to 500 kg/ha/year for the undisturbed forest.
Zulkifli et al., (1987) studied the effects of logging on stream water quality. They compared changes in pH, color, conductivity, turbidity and suspended solids in discharge of three watersheds in the hill forest areas of Negeri Sembilan. They found an increase in turbidity and suspended solid concentration as a result of conventional logging during wet season. Hence they concluded that harvesting using tractor logging seriously deteriorated stream water quality parameters.
However, Grayson et al., (1993) reported that forest harvesting does not have a major impact on river water quality. There was an increase in turbidity and suspended solids at baseflow, but these were small in absolute terms and of similar magnitude to the measurement error. The use of gravel reduce sediment production, provided a sufficient depth of material used. By increasing the level of road maintenance, this will increase the traffic load control sediment production rates. But by not doing so, it will cause an approximately 40% of sediment increase. The result indicates that by identifying the areas that produce runoff, it is possible to prevent contaminated runoff reaching the streams. Roads, on the other hand, produce large quantities of sediments, even when well maintained. Carefull consideration of their placement and management is therefore paramount.
Baharuddin et al., (1999) studied the impact of Long Haulage Ground Cable System (LHGCS) on sediment load and water quality in Jengai Forest Reserve, Dungun, Terengganu. There are two catchments area at Jengai Forest Reserve. One catchment area undergo logging activities, while the other catchment functions as a control. Based on 26 months of measurements they found that the mean monthly suspended sediment yield increased 34% after logging but no changes were observed in physical stream water quality except for a slight increase in turbidity of about 10%. However, stream water chemistry changed before and after logging.
Cornish (2001) studied the effects of harvesting, logging road construction and forest regeneration on stream turbidity level in a moist eucalypt forest, Australia. He reported that the construction of permanent road increased the turbidity level, but the increase only persisted in catchment area containing a number of stream crossing. The construction and subsequent use and presence of permanent road provide a source of additional sediments in the streams. The road that generates sediments appeared to reach the stream at stream crossing. A direct connectivity between road and stream is a factor in the supply of additional sediments to drainage.
Mohd Kamil et al., (2001) studied the effects of landuse activities in Pasoh, Negeri Sembilan based on the computation of DOE-WQI and Harkin’s Index. They compared four different types of land use: undisturbed forest, swamp, degraded logged-over forest and agriculture. The water quality chosen for the study included dissolve oxygen (DO), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), total suspended solid(TSS), ammoniacal nitrogen(AN), pH, temperature, electric conductivity and turbidity. They found that all the areas of the stream were under class II according to the Department of Environment- water Quality Index (DOE-WQI). Class II means that the water quality only need conventional treatment for water supply compared to no treatment for class I. They concluded that the water quality was of high quality in the undisturbed forest area.
Samin (2002) also studied the effects of logging on stream water quality before, during and after forest harvesting. He assessed the water quality parameters such as pH, electrical conductivity, temperature, dissolve oxygen, color, turbidity and suspended solids in the discharge of three watersheds in hill forest areas in Deramakot Forest Reserve, Sabah. He observed that after the logging road construction and harvesting had commenced the values of pH, electrical conductivity, temperature, color, turbidity and suspended solids increased. Four months after logging activities stopped the concentration of suspended solid, turbidity, pH, electric conductivity and colour reverted back to normal conditions. This was attributed to the rapid spread of ground vegetation thereby protecting the soil from erosion. He also found that the buffer zone of 5-30 meter width on both sides of the stream was not able to completely control the movement of the sediments into the stream.
There are many parameters in determining river water quality. The parameters normally used depend on the objectives of the study. The Department of Environmental, Malaysia uses six parameters to determine water quality index mainly dissolved oxygen (DO), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), total suspended solid(TSS), ammoniacal nitrogen (AN) and pH. Turbidity is one of the parameters to determine the degradation of water quality by visual observation.
2.3.1 Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
Oxygen is a necessary element to all forms of life. According to Lopes et al., (2005) the concentration of oxygen is one of the main criteria for the assessment of water quality. Oxygen is involved in the main processes occurring in the water column, photosynthesis, organic matter degradation and bacterial nitrification, as well as surface reaeration. The available oxygen in the river body is the main factor for aquatic life in rivers. Several studies reported that the concentration of DO depends on the velocity of flowing river. DO concentrations will increase with increasing velocity of the river flow (Bardalo et al., 2001; Mohd Kamil et al., 2001; Samin, 2002; Jasrul, 2004). In this context, rainfall is an important factor influencing the concentration of DO.
Shahril (2001) conducted a study on river classification in Sungai Tembeling, Sungai Pergau and Sungai Keniang Kecil. He found out that DO concentration is higher at upstream compared to the middle stream and downstream. Jasrul Nizam (2004) studied the effects of highway construction on DO in several rivers along East Coast Highway from Karak to Kuantan. He reported that the mean concentration of DO is 7.66 mg/L with the minimum value of 1.87 mg/L.
Danny (1989) studied the effects of logging road construction on water quality in Sungai Menuap Watershed, Sarawak and reported that the mean concentration of DO in undisturbed forest is 7.94 g/mL and increased to 8.28 mg/L during logging road construction. However, Samin (2001) in his study on the effects of logging road construction and timber harvesting activities in Deramakot Forest Reserve, Sabah reported that the mean DO concentration decreased during and after logging with the concentrations of 4.98 mg/L and 3.07 mg/L respectively compared to the undisturbed forest with a value of 6.51 mg/L.
Mohd Kamil et al., (2001) studied the effects of landuse patterns on the stream water quality in Pasoh, Negeri Sembilan and reported that the mean DO concentration in undisturbed forest, swamp forest, logged-over forest and agriculture area are 6.84 mg/L, 5.98 mg/L, 6.38 mg/L and 6.94 mg/L, respectively. The concentration of DO in undisturbed forest is high because the water body is still clean while the process of photosynthesis by aquatic plants maintains the oxygen content in the water.
2.3.2 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
The concentration of Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) indicates the extent of pollution by biodegradable organic matter present in the water. The BOD test is an important environmental index to determine the relative oxygen requirements of wastewater, effluents and polluted waters. It measures the molecular oxygen utilized during a specified incubation period for the biochemical degradation of organic materials and the oxygen used to oxidize inorganic materials such as sulphides and ferrous ions. It can also be an indicator to measure oxygen used to oxidize reduced forms of nitrogen (nitrogenous demand), unless their oxidation is prevented by an inhibitor (American Public Health Association [APHA], 1999). The BOD concentration depends on the river inputs, season, and temperature (Bardalo et al., 2001; Mohd Kamil et al., 2002; Jasrul, 2004; Lopes et al., 2005).
Jonnalagadda and Mhere (2001) studied water quality of Odzi river in eastern highlands of Zimbabwe. They found that BOD value was low during the dry season (1.5 mg/L) compared to the wet season (2.4 mg/L). Bardalo et al. (2001) in his studies in Bangpakong River, eastern Thailand found that the BOD increased in the dry season (1.36 mg/L) compared to the wet season (1.24 mg/L).
Mohd Kamil et al. (2001) reported that BOD values in undisturbed forest, swamp forest, logged over forest and agriculture area are 0.55 mg/L, 0.96 mg/L, 0.73 mg/L and 61.03 mg/L, respectively. The value of BOD in undisturbed forest is lower because the water body is still clean and will remain clean unless there is increasing organic matter in the water.
2.3.3 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) is defined as the measure of the oxygen equivalent to the organic matter content of a sample that is susceptible to oxidation by a strong chemical oxidant (APHA, 1989). Until now, COD which can indicate the level of pollution for water contaminated by reductive pollutants is the main determinant used to assess organic pollution in aqueous systems and is one of the most important parameters in water monitoring (Yonggang and Zeyu, 2003). Bardalo et al. (2001) in their studies in Banggpakong River, eastern Thailand reported that the COD increased dramatically in the dry season from 27.5 mg/L to 68.5 mg/L.
Mohd Kamil et al. (2001) reported that the values of COD are higher in agriculture area (18.0 mg/L), followed by logged-over forest (13.8mg/L), swamp forest (10.5 mg/L), and undisturbed forest (5.83 mg/L). They also reported that the values of COD increased during the dry season because of the low flow and reduced dilution of chemicals in the water. According to Jasrul (2004), the concentration of COD in the construction of east coast highway from Karak to Kuantan was between 2.60 – 16.20 mg/L. Generally the value of COD increased because of decomposition of organic matter. In undisturbed forest, the COD is lower because the water is still clean and not polluted.
2.3.4 Ammoniacal Nitrogen
Nitrogen is an essential nutrient for plant growth, normally comprising about 12-14% of the mass of the cell protein. Its availability to any particular type of organism, however, depends on the chemical form in which it is present. The form of nitrogen in the environment ranges from organic and inorganic such as ammonium nitrogen, nitrogen gas, nitrites and nitrates. Ammonia may be produced from the organically bound nitrogen by extra-cellular biochemical action on dead plant and animal tissues and animal fecal matter, by endogenous respiration of living bacteria cell, and from dead and lysed cells. The general term, ammonification, has been applied to the release of ammonia from organic matter (Barnes and Bliss, 1983).
Jasrul (2004) reported that the concentration of ammoniacal nitrogen in the river along the east coast highway is from 0.04 to 0.5 mg/L. Mohd Kamil et al., (2001) found that the concentration of ammoniacal nitrogen is higher in swamp forest with the concentration of 0.17 mg/L compared to 0.03, 0.02, 0.01 for agriculture area, logged-over forest and undisturbed forest, respectively. The decomposition of leaves and other plant debris by microorganisms are believed to have contributed more nitrogen to the water. Sources of nitrogen include the fixation of nitrogen gas by certain bacteria and plants, the addition of organic matter to water bodies, and small amounts from the weathering of nitrogen rocks. Organic N breaks down into ammonia which eventually becomes oxidized to nitrate nitrogen (Barnes and Bliss, 1983).
2.3.5 pH
The pH of the water serves as an index to pollution which shows the degree of acid or base forming chemicals. However, pH by itself is not an absolute measure of pollution or contamination by natural solutes (Samin, 2001). The pH value of acidic water varies from 0 to 7 and that of alkaline water between 7 to14, while neutral water has a value of 7. The measurement of pH is one of the most important and frequently used test in water chemistry. It is the symbol of a scale, numbered from 0 to 14, that rates water solutions according to their acidity or alkalinity (Elvina and Mohd Kamil, 2004). According to Jonnalagadda and Mhere, (2001) unpolluted streams normally show a near neutral or slightly alkaline pH. The pH is slightly alkaline due to effluents from the fish. The pH value less than 7 is due to the leachates and runoffs.
Danny (1989) reported that the mean pH value in undisturbed forest is 5.37 and increased to 5.65 during the construction of logging road. Zulkifli et al.(1987) also reported that the value of pH in undisturbed forest is less than the disturbed forest. The mean pH value in undisturbed forest is 6.1 compared to 6.7 in disturbed forest. During the wet season the pH value is 6.0 and increased during the dry season. However, Mohd Kamil et al. (2001) reported that the pH value in undisturbed forests is 6.0 and higher than in the logged-over forest, swamp forest and agriculture area.
2.3.6 Total Suspended Solids (TSS)
Suspended solids are the solids that can be filtered by a 1.2 µm membrane filter. Any particle passing the filter is considered dissolved, and any particle retained is considered suspended. The sum of the dissolved and suspended solid is the total soil sediment. Total Suspended solid (TSS) is the sum of the suspended solid (Tchobanoglous and Schroeder, 1987). TSS may include both organic and inorganic materials. The inorganic fraction is made up largely of silt, sand and clay soil particles, while the organic fraction may be either living or dead organic matter (Darrell, 1971).
Season influences the concentration of TSS. Jonnalagadda and Mhere (2001) reported that the TSS increased in wet season and decreased in the dry season. The highest value of TSS in a wet season is 107 mg/L and the lowest is 40 mg/L in the dry season. In Bukit Berembun Forest Reserve, Zulkifli et al., (1987) studied the effects of selective logging on physical stream water quality between three watershed areas in a hill tropical forest. They reported that the TSS was lower during the dry season and higher in the wet season. The mean TSS during the dry season is 14.29 mg/L and dramatically increased to 73.29 mg/L during the wet season.
The comparative study between undisturbed forest, swamp forest, logged over forest and agriculture area by Mohd Kamil et al. (2001) shows that the concentration of TSS is 1.42, 4.08, 2.50 and 6.42 mg/L, respectively. In undisturbed forest and logged over forest, the concentration of TSS is lower because the soil surface is protected by vegetative cover. TSS values are higher in downstream compared to the upper stream because all the sediments produced at the upper stream accumulate at the downstream (Mohd Kamil et al., 2001).
2.3.7 Turbidity
Turbidity is an indication of apparent color of water due to the presence of suspended inorganic matter such as silt and clay (Husain, 1990). Turbidity reduces light penetration caused by particulate solids (Darrell, 1971). According to Bardalo et al. (2001), turbidity level is high due to the runoff from surrounding agriculture and other farming activities. The water transparency decreased significantly during the dry season with a mean turbidity of 69.9 NTU become 30.9 NTU in the wet season. Cornish (2001) studied the effects of roading, harvesting and forest regeneration on stream turbidity level in a moist eucalyptus forest, New South Wales, Australia. He reported that turbidity level was higher in forest harvesting areas either without regeneration or with regeneration compared to the undisturbed areas.
Danny (1989) reported that the turbidity mean level in undisturbed forest was 8.7 NTU and increased to 60.1 NTU during construction of logging road. He also compared the effects of tractor harvesting on stream turbidity between dry season and wet season and found that the stream turbidity in the dry season (35 NTU) had increased during the wet season (287 NTU).
Samin (2002) compared the turbidity between the dry and wet seasons. He reported that the levels of turbidity during the dry season are 7.02, 8.73 and 6.53 NTU for before, during and after logging, respectively. The level of turbidity increased during the wet season with means of 88.51, 174.31 and 110.21 NTU.
Turbidity is higher during the wet season and lower during the dry season because of the rainfall influencing runoff, erosion and sedimentation. In undisturbed forest, the values of turbidity is low compared to disturbed forest due to the protection of soil surface by the vegetative cover and only a small amount of runoff and erosion flow into the streams.
2.3.8 Water Quality Index
The Water Quality Index (WQI) is a mathematical instrument used to transform large quantities of water quality data into a single number which represents the water quality level (Nives, 1999; Jonnalagadda and Mhere, 2001). WQI provides a simple and understandable tool for managers and decision makers on the quality and possible uses of a given water body .The first WQI was developed in the United States by Horton (1965) and applied in Europe since the 1970s (Bardalo et al., 2001).
The parameters selected for the calculation of WQI is through the combined judgement of a panel of water quality experts. Water quality evaluation (WQE) is calculated by summing up individual quality ratings and weighting these parameters in total quality evaluation. The highest value of water quality is 100 score (Bordalo et al., 2001; Nives, 1999; DOE, 2004).
Different countries use different parameters. For example, Scottish WQI use nine parameters such as biochemical oxygen demand, dissolved oxygen, fecal coliform bacteria, pH, temperature, total nitrate, total phosphorus, total solids and turbidity (Nives, 1999). Bordalo et al. (2001) used eight parameters to determine the WQI in Bangpakong River, Thailand. These are biochemical oxygen demand, dissolved oxygen, fecal coliform bacteria, pH, temperature, total phosphorus, total solids and turbidity.
There are two methods to determine water quality index in Malaysia. These are the Department of Environment- Water Quality Index (DOE-WQI) and Harkin’s Index. The DOE – WQI is an opinion-poll formula. A panel of experts was consulted on the choice of parameters and on the weightage to be assigned to each parameter. Harkin’s WQI Index is an objective method based on Kendall’s nonparametric multivariate ranking procedure (Harkins, 1974). This index follows a statistical approach for analyzing water quality based on the rank order of observations compared to a set of “control values”, which are usually a set of water quality standards or recommended limits. The index does not set parameter requirements and is therefore very flexible in application since only those parameters of interest to the index that user needs to be included in the computations (Mohd Kamil et al., 2001).
The calculations of DOE-WQI are performed not on the parameters themselves but on their subindices where the values were obtained from a series of equations shown in Appendix 1. These are best-fit equations obtained from rating curves. The subindices for the chosen parameters are named SIDO, SIBOD, SICOD, SIAN, SISS and SIPH, and the formula used in the calculation is:
WQI = 0.22* SIDO + 0.19* SIBOD + 0.16* SICOD + 0.15* SIAN
+ 0.16* SISS + 0.12* SIPH
The classification of water quality according to DOE-WQI is divided into six classes according to the usage of water using Interim National Water Quality Standards as shown in Table 2.2.
Mohd Kamil et al. (2001) reported that the DOE-WQI in an undisturbed forest, swamp forest, logged over forest and agriculture are classified as Class II where the water supply required conventional treatment before used. However, the values of DOE-WQI are higher in undisturbed forest followed by disturbed forest, swamp forest and agriculture area. They also reported that the stream water quality depends on the season. Rainfall affects water quality by decreasing infiltration and increasing runoff and soil erosion.
The main species dominating the area are Seraya (Shorea curtisii), Meranti Melantai (Shorea macroptera Dyer.), Meranti Tembaga (Shorea leprosula Mig.), Meranti Kepong (Shorea ovalis Korth), Meranti Rambai Daun (Shorea accuminata Dyer) and Meranti Sarang Punai (Shorea parvifolia Dyer). The main species other than Meranti are Mersawa (Anisoptera spp), merawan (Hopea spp) and Keruing (Dipterocarpus spp). The main non–Dipterocarp species comprise of Kelat (Syzygium spp), Merpauh (Swintonia spp), Penarahan (Myristicaea spp) and Medang ( Lauraceae spp ).
One of the main reasons that caused changes in soil texture might be due to soil surface erosion. The process of soil erosion is unavoidable because it happens naturally. This was reported by Baharuddin (1995) and Hartanto et al. (2003) where soil erosion still happens either in undisturbed forest or logging areas. Soil erosion process will remove clay, silt and sand through surface run-off thus change the soil texture. The effects of forest harvesting on soil texture was also reported by other studies. According to Makineci et al.,(2006) in his study in Belgrade, Turkey, the values of sand, silt and clay in the skid trail are 52.13, 25.55 and 20.32 % as compared to the undisturbed area with values of 48.84, 21.99 and 29.17%, respectively. Baharuddin (1995) reported that the soil loss was 13,300 kg/ha/year and 10,100 kg/ha/year for the logging road and skid trail compared to 500 kg/ha /year for the undisturbed area. However, studies in Sabah showed that surface erosion losses from harvesting areas are quite low at less than 200 kg/ha/year (Malmer and Grip,1990). According to Hartanto et al., (2003) the difference between logging system can only be significant for soil loss but not to runoff. This may due to the fact that runoff is strongly determined by rainfall.
The conditions of soil surface before harvesting phase are sheltered by tree canopy and litter layer. The tree canopy and litter on the soil surface acted as a buffer or filter to the direct rainfall. During forest harvesting, various activities which include feeder road and skid trail construction, cutting down trees and log disposal will initiate canopy opening and soil surface disturbance and this leads to soil erosion. Sidle et al., (2006) reported that logging road activities contributed the highest erosion compared to other land use. The higher percentage of sand during and after logging was probably due to the removal of fine fraction (silt and clay). Baharuddin (1995) believed that soil loss is highest on the logging road where the soil surface was exposed. This is because of the direct rainfall to the soil surface on the logging road without a buffer or filter compared to skid trail or undisturbed forest. Higher soil loss was detected during harvesting and it was reduced due to re-establishment of ground cover.
From t-test analysis, as shown in Table 4.1 also indicated that there was no significant difference detected among the sand, silt and clay between the two altitudes. This concludes that the elevation did not significantly affect soil texture for each harvesting phase. Figure 4.1 shows the soil texture in relation to elevation and harvesting phase.
The effects of forest harvesting on soil bulk density has already been reported by various other studies. Rab (1994) in his study in Eucalptus regnan forest, Southeastern Australia reported that bulk density increased by 33% to 65% compared to that in undisturbed forest. Merino et al. (1998) indicated that bulk density increased by 17% after whole tree harvesting in his study of Pinus radiate plantation in Northern Spain. In Malaysia, Baharuddin (1995) reported that forest harvesting that applied conventional logging in Tekam Forest Reserved Pahang produced a higher value in bulk density especially when involved in using skid trail and logging road. The values were reported to be 1.49 and 1.60 g/cm3, respectively.
Regarding the elevation analysis using t- test, the impact of forest harvesting using RIMBAKA technique on bulk density was quite similar. Both altitudinal levels showed no significant difference in bulk density value in each harvesting phase (Table 4.3). This is because the four main elements (slope class, the number of trees harvested, soil texture and method of harvesting) have a similar pattern for both altitudes. This scenario also occurred in other places where many researchers found that forest harvesting from different altitudes has no impact on bulk density. The increasing value in bulk density after forest harvesting very much depends on many factors such as soil type, soil movement, amount of timber removed, type of heavy machine used, movement of heavy machine in the logging areas, slope and site characteristics (Kamaruzaman, 1991; Baharuddin, 1995; Merino et al., 1998; Shukri et al., 1999; Andrian et al., 2005; Demir et al., 2006).
Water Quality Index
The site condition is an important factor that relates to river water quality status and the results are showed in Table 4.9. The statistical analysis showed that the undisturbed forest has better river water quality status compared to the logging and road crossing areas either during or after forest operations (P≤0.01). At the same time the weather conditions also play an important role in influencing the river water quality status for the three areas (undisturbed, logging and road crossing) (P≤0.01).
Based on the WQI values, the worst river water quality status was recorded at the road crossing area compared to the undisturbed and logging areas due to active usage of the area because the road has to be regularly maintained through surface grading and the surface is almost 100% exposed to direct rainfall.
Figure 4.6 shows the profile of mean WQI for different site conditions recorded from 21st November 2005 to 19th September 2006. The figure shows that the rivers in the logged and road crossing areas has lower quality status compared to undisturbed areas and the profile changes with seasons as indicated along x-axis.
According to Baharuddin (1995) surface runoff from forest road was nine times higher than the undisturbed forest and six times higher than the skid road. Besides that, rainfall distribution also influenced the turbidity value between those three locations and between phases of forest harvesting.
Figures 4.7 and 4.8 illustrate the trend of turbidity and TSS between phases of forest harvesting among the undisturbed forest, logging areas and road crossing. The value of turbidity were found higher at the road crossing area followed by the logging areas and undisturbed forest. The values of turbidity were low before harvesting but higher during harvesting. However, the values of turbidity decreased to normal value after harvesting. These results are similar with the studies conducted by Gomi et al. (2006) where the sediment in the river was related to land disturbance for the road and skid trail.
Doa Silahu Mu'min
اللهم اجعلني من الذين اذا احسنوا استبشروا واذا اساءوا استغفروا
Allahummaj’alni minalLazina iza ahsanu istabsyiru, wa iza asa_uu istaghfaruu.
Ya Allah , Jadilah aku daripada golongan yang apabila berbuat baik, mereka bergembira dan apabila berbuat yang tidak baik mereka meminta ampun.
Allahummaj’alni minalLazina iza ahsanu istabsyiru, wa iza asa_uu istaghfaruu.
Ya Allah , Jadilah aku daripada golongan yang apabila berbuat baik, mereka bergembira dan apabila berbuat yang tidak baik mereka meminta ampun.
Ternak Rusa sumber protin
Rusa memang enak dimakan tetapi sukar diperolehi memandangkan ia merupakan binatang liar yang dilindungi oleh Jabatan PERHILITAN sejak tahun 1972) atau nama lamanya ialah Jabatan MERGASTUA,
Meskipun pemburuan rusa hanya dibuka pada bulan 11 setiap tahun tetapi permintaan tinggi dari hotel dan restoran bertaraf 5 bintang begitu tinggi menyebabkan berlaku juga pemburuan tanpa permit . Penguatkuasaan adalah tugas Jabatan PERHILITAN.
*harga semasa bulan 4/ 2007.
Permit Khas KPM49
Section 51
Fakta: Ladang Ternak di Jabatan Haiwan dan Penternakan Lenggong, Perak
Melihat permintaan tinggi, kerajaan telah mengambil langkah menternak rusa Sambar/ rusa tempatan secara ladang bermula dari tahun 1977 di Perak
Sejak itu populasi rusa bertambah dengan cepat iaitu daripada 300 ekor pada tahun 1986 meningkat kepada 3,600 ekor pada tahun 1991 diikuti 10,000 ekor pada tahun 1998, 11,000 ekor pada tahun 2003 dan 15,000 ekor ketika ini ( bulan 4 /2007).
Daripada 15,000 ekor rusa yang diternak, sebanyak 85 peratus merupakan rusa Timur (tidak perlu mohon permit jabatan...dikenali jua selaku Rusa Sumatra... manakala selebihnya dari jenis Chital (Axis), Merah, Fallow dan Sika.
Selain Rusa Sambar ( harus mohon permit dari jabatan Mergastua nama baru PERHILITAN...
Rusa dari hutan negara ini adalah dilindungi dibawah AKTA no 76 AKTA Perlindungan Hidupan Liar 1972
Rusa jenis lain diimport dari Mauritus, New Caledonia, Australia, New Zealand dan Indonesia.
Sebanyak 60 peratus daripada ternakan rusa diusahakan oleh Jabatan Perkhidmatan Haiwan (JPH). Selebihnya oleh ladang swasta, perseorangan dan agensi lain seperti Institut Penyelidikan dan kemajuan Pertanian Malaysia (MARDI), Jabatan PERHILITAN, PORIM (sekarang Lembaga Minyak Sawit Malaysia, MPOB) dan Universiti Putra Malaysia.
Antara ladang ternakan rusa terbesar di Negara ini ialah yang terletak di Pusat Ternak Haiwan Lenggong, Perak dengan keluasan 200 hektar.
Pusat tersebut memulakan usaha penternakan rusa pada September 1989 di Behrang Ulu sebelum berpindah ke ladang baru di Lenggong pada 2000.
Menurut Pengurus Pusat Ternakan Haiwan Lenggong, Dr Rafiah Aini, rusa bukan satu-satunya haiwan liar yang diternak di ladang tersebut kerana terdapat juga kancil, landak, burung merak, zirafah dan pelbagai jenis unggas.
Beliau berkata , rusa bagaimanapun diberi tumpuan dalam penyelidikan dan pembangunan (R&D) di pusat ini kerana potensinya untuk dikormersialkan memandangkan rusa mempunyai banyak khasiat pemakanan dan kegunaan daripada daging sehingga tanduknya.
Produk
Hasil R&D yang dijalankan sejak beberapa tahun lalu, kita Berjaya mengeluarkan pelbagai jenis produk makanan berasaskan rusa seperti pau, pekasam, dan karipap.
Tanduk rusa yang tidak boleh di makan pula boleh dijadikan barang perhiasan wanita, sarung keris, dan pemegang kunci.
Janagan terkejut, tanduk rusa atau velvet Anthler apabila diproses menjadi serbuk amat berkhasiat dijadikan makanan kesihatan, katanya.
Kajian membuktikan bahawa Velvet Anthler cukup berkesan untuk meninggikan jumlah kandungan darah dan kiraan ferum; memberikan tenaga kesihatan yang lebih baik kepada pengidap sakit buah pinggang, gastrointestinal, kurang tekanan darah dan anemia; meningkatkan kadar penyembuhan; mengurangkan asma dan meningkatkan kesuburan khususnya bagi lelaki yang mengalami masalah.
Dr Rafiah, memberitahu, kulit rusa pula sesuai digunakan untuk membuat beg, kasut dan baju selain diproses menjadi keropok kulit rusa yang enak dimakan.
Kajian mendapati keropok kulit rusa mempunyai khasiat kesihatan kerana ia boleh memanaskan badan seterusnya mengurangkan lemak dan kolestrol.
Pusat Ternak Haiwan Lenggong Perak ini sudah Berjaya menternak tiga jenis rusa iaitu Rusa Timur ( Timorensis) yang berjumlah 1,031 ekor, diikuti Axis 126 ekor dan Sambar 58 ekor.
Haiwan ini diasingkan kepada tiga kumpulan iaitu rusa pembiak, anak rusa dan rusa jantan dewasa yang sedia untuk di sembelih (sekitar usia 18 bulan).
Hanya rusa jantan disembelih untuk dijual, manakala rusa betina dipelihara untuk tujuan melahirkan baka.
Menurut Dr Rafiah Aini, kumpulan rusa pembiak terdiri daripada rusa betina berusia dua tahun ke atas dan jantan berusia empat tahun ke atas. Kumpulan ini dibiarkan tinggal bersama bagi menggalakkan mereka mengawan dan melahirkan anak.
Biasa kita menempatkan 10 ekor Rusa jantan bersama 100 ekor Rusa betina, mengikut kajian Seekor Rusa jantan mampu mengawan dengan 40 ekor Rusa betina
Musim mengawan berlaku bila tanduk Rusa jantan menjadi keras, Musim beranak Rusa betina antara bulan Oktober hingga Januari kerana tempoh rusa bunting adalah 8 bulan.
Rusa jantan yang berusia 18 bulan ke atas sedia untuk disembelih.
Rumput jenis Guinea dan Decumbens yang diimport dari Australia dan Thailand sesuai untuk pemakanannya
Garam mineral blok serta kulit jagung menambahkan serat dalam pemakanan rusa. Sebanyak 20 kilogram rumput diberikan kepada sekumpulan rusa ternak setiap hari
Penyakit seperti trypanosomiasis dan kecederaan akibat berlawan sesame sendiri khususnya melibatkan rusa jantan ketika musim mengawan
Rusa yang sakit akan di rawat di klinik kesihatan yang bercantum dengan tempat penyembelihan
Rusa perlu menjalani pemeriksaan darah, tahap kecacingan, diberi antibiotic, vitamin dan lain-lain ubatan
Rusa yang diternak di kawasan bukit, dagingnya lebih bermutu tinggi, kerana aktiviti turun naik bukit memberikan senaman kepada rusa ini, menurut Dr Rafiah Aini.
Kaedah Pengurusan
Sistem pengurusan lading rusa terbahagi kepada dua iaitu ragutan terbuka yang mana rusa dibiarkan meragut rumput pasturan secara pusingan dengan kadar empat hingga lima ekor
Keperluan utama diperlukan oleh penternak yang memilih lading konsep ini ialah penanaman rumput, pemagaran dan rumah klinik.
Sistem pengurusan lading kedua ialah lading integrasi iaitu rusa diternak di bawah tanaman kekal seperti kelapa sawit, koko dan kelapa. Seperti system ragutan terbuka, ladang ini juga memerlukan pemagaran, rumah klinik + penyembelihan dan tumbuhan atas tanah antara tanaman kekal.
Menurut Dr Rafiah, permintaan terhadap daging rusa amat tinggi sehingga Pusat Ternakan Haiwan Lenggong, Perak yang mengusahakan ternakan secara perladangan terpaksa menolak tawaran menjadi pembekal kepada restoran dan hotel kerana bekalan rusa yang ada tidak mencukupi.
Meskipun penternakan rusa memberikan keuntungan besar tetapi tidak ramai yang berani mengusahakannya industri ternakan ini ini kerana ia memerlukan modal dan kemahiran tinggi
Kos ternak 100 ekor Rusa RM500,000 diperlukan untuk membeli baka, penyediaan padang ragut dan pemagaran, menurut Dr Rafiah Aini.
Dari segi kemahiran, beliau berkata ia bukan masalah kerana Pusat Ternakan Haiwan Lenggong ada menawarkan Kursus menternak dan menguruskan rusa selama dua minggu kepada sesiapa yang berminat dengan kadar yuran berpatutan.
Antara kemahiran di ajar semasa kursus ialah bagaimana mengawal masalah penyakit berkaitan rusa, pengurusan peringkat pekerja biasa sehingga tahap penyelia dan veterinary.
Mereka yang berminat mengikuti kursus penternak rusa boleh mendapatkan maklumat lanjut dengan menghubungi Pengelola , Pusat Ternak Haiwan Lenggong 33400 Lenggong, Perak di talian 05-7982880
Jenis rumputyang sesuai:
MARDI digit Digitaria setivalva
Setaria kazungula Setara sphacelata cv kazungula
Rumput Kuda Panicum maximum
Rumput gajah Pennisetum
Kekacang sentro Centrocema pubescence
Daun kayu dan herba:
Nangka Artocarpus heterophyllus
Cempedak Artocarpus integer
Tempunik Artocarpus rigidus
Akar kala Clidemia hirta
Paku miding Stenochiaena palustris
Kelempung air Ficus grassularoides
Kelempung burung Ficus alba
Kopi liar Fagrea racemosa
Telinga gajah Macaranga gigantean
Kemam Bredilia monoica
Tinjau belukar Greenia corymbosa
Jenis daun yang sesuai juga untuk Rusa:
Mengkirai Trema spp
Tempinis Streblus elongates
Cempaka liar Gardenia tubifera
Ludai Croton argyratus
Tulang Daing Melletia atropurpurea
Sial menahun Pternandra coerulenscens
Senduduk Melastoma malabathricum
Semalu Mimosa pudica
Lalang Imperata cylindrical
Rumput parit Axonopus compressus
Rumput kerbau Paspalum conugatum
Di Malaysia, menurut Encik azhar Infotek / Jabatan Haiwan dan Penternakan di Sungai Siput mengatakan rusa beranak pada sepanjang tahun Cuma the peak of breeding berlaku pada pertengahan bulan 9 setiap tahun. (hampir saya dengan pandangan dan pengalaman Dr Rafiah Aini yakni bulan 10 hingga bulan 1)
Maka dicadangkan Jabatan mengeluarkan lessen KPM 14A untuk memburu Rusa Tempatan/ Sambar pada bulan Febrauari.
Maklumat dari kajian di New Caledonia Australia dan Mauritius yang mengatakan breeding/ musim beranak pada bulan Febrauri hingga Oktober, mungkin hanya berlaku di area New Caledonia aje.
Sebenarnya Rusa Timur atau Rusa sambar beranak/breeding sepanjang tahun Cuma the peak season for breeding berlaku dalam pertengahan bulan 9.
Amat sesuai jika musim terbuka uantuk memburu kitatepkan pada bulan Febrauri kerana dikhuatiri semasa memburu rusa, kemungkinan ada anak dalam kandungan rusa betina.
Sifir untuk Rusa Timur:
3 ekar – 100 ekor rusa Timur jika secara paddock
1 ekar untuk 6-10 ekor rusa jika secara grazing/ padang ragut rumput.
Untuk kaedah grazing maka yang sesuai bagi permulaan adalah seluas 30 ekar luas kawasan grazing seperti cara ternak lembu.
Untuk Rusa sambar perlu ada padang untuk rusa sambar bersenam serta mengurangkan stress kepada rusa sambar.
Meskipun pemburuan rusa hanya dibuka pada bulan 11 setiap tahun tetapi permintaan tinggi dari hotel dan restoran bertaraf 5 bintang begitu tinggi menyebabkan berlaku juga pemburuan tanpa permit . Penguatkuasaan adalah tugas Jabatan PERHILITAN.
*harga semasa bulan 4/ 2007.
Permit Khas KPM49
Section 51
Fakta: Ladang Ternak di Jabatan Haiwan dan Penternakan Lenggong, Perak
Melihat permintaan tinggi, kerajaan telah mengambil langkah menternak rusa Sambar/ rusa tempatan secara ladang bermula dari tahun 1977 di Perak
Sejak itu populasi rusa bertambah dengan cepat iaitu daripada 300 ekor pada tahun 1986 meningkat kepada 3,600 ekor pada tahun 1991 diikuti 10,000 ekor pada tahun 1998, 11,000 ekor pada tahun 2003 dan 15,000 ekor ketika ini ( bulan 4 /2007).
Daripada 15,000 ekor rusa yang diternak, sebanyak 85 peratus merupakan rusa Timur (tidak perlu mohon permit jabatan...dikenali jua selaku Rusa Sumatra... manakala selebihnya dari jenis Chital (Axis), Merah, Fallow dan Sika.
Selain Rusa Sambar ( harus mohon permit dari jabatan Mergastua nama baru PERHILITAN...
Rusa dari hutan negara ini adalah dilindungi dibawah AKTA no 76 AKTA Perlindungan Hidupan Liar 1972
Rusa jenis lain diimport dari Mauritus, New Caledonia, Australia, New Zealand dan Indonesia.
Sebanyak 60 peratus daripada ternakan rusa diusahakan oleh Jabatan Perkhidmatan Haiwan (JPH). Selebihnya oleh ladang swasta, perseorangan dan agensi lain seperti Institut Penyelidikan dan kemajuan Pertanian Malaysia (MARDI), Jabatan PERHILITAN, PORIM (sekarang Lembaga Minyak Sawit Malaysia, MPOB) dan Universiti Putra Malaysia.
Antara ladang ternakan rusa terbesar di Negara ini ialah yang terletak di Pusat Ternak Haiwan Lenggong, Perak dengan keluasan 200 hektar.
Pusat tersebut memulakan usaha penternakan rusa pada September 1989 di Behrang Ulu sebelum berpindah ke ladang baru di Lenggong pada 2000.
Menurut Pengurus Pusat Ternakan Haiwan Lenggong, Dr Rafiah Aini, rusa bukan satu-satunya haiwan liar yang diternak di ladang tersebut kerana terdapat juga kancil, landak, burung merak, zirafah dan pelbagai jenis unggas.
Beliau berkata , rusa bagaimanapun diberi tumpuan dalam penyelidikan dan pembangunan (R&D) di pusat ini kerana potensinya untuk dikormersialkan memandangkan rusa mempunyai banyak khasiat pemakanan dan kegunaan daripada daging sehingga tanduknya.
Produk
Hasil R&D yang dijalankan sejak beberapa tahun lalu, kita Berjaya mengeluarkan pelbagai jenis produk makanan berasaskan rusa seperti pau, pekasam, dan karipap.
Tanduk rusa yang tidak boleh di makan pula boleh dijadikan barang perhiasan wanita, sarung keris, dan pemegang kunci.
Janagan terkejut, tanduk rusa atau velvet Anthler apabila diproses menjadi serbuk amat berkhasiat dijadikan makanan kesihatan, katanya.
Kajian membuktikan bahawa Velvet Anthler cukup berkesan untuk meninggikan jumlah kandungan darah dan kiraan ferum; memberikan tenaga kesihatan yang lebih baik kepada pengidap sakit buah pinggang, gastrointestinal, kurang tekanan darah dan anemia; meningkatkan kadar penyembuhan; mengurangkan asma dan meningkatkan kesuburan khususnya bagi lelaki yang mengalami masalah.
Dr Rafiah, memberitahu, kulit rusa pula sesuai digunakan untuk membuat beg, kasut dan baju selain diproses menjadi keropok kulit rusa yang enak dimakan.
Kajian mendapati keropok kulit rusa mempunyai khasiat kesihatan kerana ia boleh memanaskan badan seterusnya mengurangkan lemak dan kolestrol.
Pusat Ternak Haiwan Lenggong Perak ini sudah Berjaya menternak tiga jenis rusa iaitu Rusa Timur ( Timorensis) yang berjumlah 1,031 ekor, diikuti Axis 126 ekor dan Sambar 58 ekor.
Haiwan ini diasingkan kepada tiga kumpulan iaitu rusa pembiak, anak rusa dan rusa jantan dewasa yang sedia untuk di sembelih (sekitar usia 18 bulan).
Hanya rusa jantan disembelih untuk dijual, manakala rusa betina dipelihara untuk tujuan melahirkan baka.
Menurut Dr Rafiah Aini, kumpulan rusa pembiak terdiri daripada rusa betina berusia dua tahun ke atas dan jantan berusia empat tahun ke atas. Kumpulan ini dibiarkan tinggal bersama bagi menggalakkan mereka mengawan dan melahirkan anak.
Biasa kita menempatkan 10 ekor Rusa jantan bersama 100 ekor Rusa betina, mengikut kajian Seekor Rusa jantan mampu mengawan dengan 40 ekor Rusa betina
Musim mengawan berlaku bila tanduk Rusa jantan menjadi keras, Musim beranak Rusa betina antara bulan Oktober hingga Januari kerana tempoh rusa bunting adalah 8 bulan.
Rusa jantan yang berusia 18 bulan ke atas sedia untuk disembelih.
Rumput jenis Guinea dan Decumbens yang diimport dari Australia dan Thailand sesuai untuk pemakanannya
Garam mineral blok serta kulit jagung menambahkan serat dalam pemakanan rusa. Sebanyak 20 kilogram rumput diberikan kepada sekumpulan rusa ternak setiap hari
Penyakit seperti trypanosomiasis dan kecederaan akibat berlawan sesame sendiri khususnya melibatkan rusa jantan ketika musim mengawan
Rusa yang sakit akan di rawat di klinik kesihatan yang bercantum dengan tempat penyembelihan
Rusa perlu menjalani pemeriksaan darah, tahap kecacingan, diberi antibiotic, vitamin dan lain-lain ubatan
Rusa yang diternak di kawasan bukit, dagingnya lebih bermutu tinggi, kerana aktiviti turun naik bukit memberikan senaman kepada rusa ini, menurut Dr Rafiah Aini.
Kaedah Pengurusan
Sistem pengurusan lading rusa terbahagi kepada dua iaitu ragutan terbuka yang mana rusa dibiarkan meragut rumput pasturan secara pusingan dengan kadar empat hingga lima ekor
Keperluan utama diperlukan oleh penternak yang memilih lading konsep ini ialah penanaman rumput, pemagaran dan rumah klinik.
Sistem pengurusan lading kedua ialah lading integrasi iaitu rusa diternak di bawah tanaman kekal seperti kelapa sawit, koko dan kelapa. Seperti system ragutan terbuka, ladang ini juga memerlukan pemagaran, rumah klinik + penyembelihan dan tumbuhan atas tanah antara tanaman kekal.
Menurut Dr Rafiah, permintaan terhadap daging rusa amat tinggi sehingga Pusat Ternakan Haiwan Lenggong, Perak yang mengusahakan ternakan secara perladangan terpaksa menolak tawaran menjadi pembekal kepada restoran dan hotel kerana bekalan rusa yang ada tidak mencukupi.
Meskipun penternakan rusa memberikan keuntungan besar tetapi tidak ramai yang berani mengusahakannya industri ternakan ini ini kerana ia memerlukan modal dan kemahiran tinggi
Kos ternak 100 ekor Rusa RM500,000 diperlukan untuk membeli baka, penyediaan padang ragut dan pemagaran, menurut Dr Rafiah Aini.
Dari segi kemahiran, beliau berkata ia bukan masalah kerana Pusat Ternakan Haiwan Lenggong ada menawarkan Kursus menternak dan menguruskan rusa selama dua minggu kepada sesiapa yang berminat dengan kadar yuran berpatutan.
Antara kemahiran di ajar semasa kursus ialah bagaimana mengawal masalah penyakit berkaitan rusa, pengurusan peringkat pekerja biasa sehingga tahap penyelia dan veterinary.
Mereka yang berminat mengikuti kursus penternak rusa boleh mendapatkan maklumat lanjut dengan menghubungi Pengelola , Pusat Ternak Haiwan Lenggong 33400 Lenggong, Perak di talian 05-7982880
Jenis rumputyang sesuai:
MARDI digit Digitaria setivalva
Setaria kazungula Setara sphacelata cv kazungula
Rumput Kuda Panicum maximum
Rumput gajah Pennisetum
Kekacang sentro Centrocema pubescence
Daun kayu dan herba:
Nangka Artocarpus heterophyllus
Cempedak Artocarpus integer
Tempunik Artocarpus rigidus
Akar kala Clidemia hirta
Paku miding Stenochiaena palustris
Kelempung air Ficus grassularoides
Kelempung burung Ficus alba
Kopi liar Fagrea racemosa
Telinga gajah Macaranga gigantean
Kemam Bredilia monoica
Tinjau belukar Greenia corymbosa
Jenis daun yang sesuai juga untuk Rusa:
Mengkirai Trema spp
Tempinis Streblus elongates
Cempaka liar Gardenia tubifera
Ludai Croton argyratus
Tulang Daing Melletia atropurpurea
Sial menahun Pternandra coerulenscens
Senduduk Melastoma malabathricum
Semalu Mimosa pudica
Lalang Imperata cylindrical
Rumput parit Axonopus compressus
Rumput kerbau Paspalum conugatum
Di Malaysia, menurut Encik azhar Infotek / Jabatan Haiwan dan Penternakan di Sungai Siput mengatakan rusa beranak pada sepanjang tahun Cuma the peak of breeding berlaku pada pertengahan bulan 9 setiap tahun. (hampir saya dengan pandangan dan pengalaman Dr Rafiah Aini yakni bulan 10 hingga bulan 1)
Maka dicadangkan Jabatan mengeluarkan lessen KPM 14A untuk memburu Rusa Tempatan/ Sambar pada bulan Febrauari.
Maklumat dari kajian di New Caledonia Australia dan Mauritius yang mengatakan breeding/ musim beranak pada bulan Febrauri hingga Oktober, mungkin hanya berlaku di area New Caledonia aje.
Sebenarnya Rusa Timur atau Rusa sambar beranak/breeding sepanjang tahun Cuma the peak season for breeding berlaku dalam pertengahan bulan 9.
Amat sesuai jika musim terbuka uantuk memburu kitatepkan pada bulan Febrauri kerana dikhuatiri semasa memburu rusa, kemungkinan ada anak dalam kandungan rusa betina.
Sifir untuk Rusa Timur:
3 ekar – 100 ekor rusa Timur jika secara paddock
1 ekar untuk 6-10 ekor rusa jika secara grazing/ padang ragut rumput.
Untuk kaedah grazing maka yang sesuai bagi permulaan adalah seluas 30 ekar luas kawasan grazing seperti cara ternak lembu.
Untuk Rusa sambar perlu ada padang untuk rusa sambar bersenam serta mengurangkan stress kepada rusa sambar.
Nikah Misyar
Nikah Misyar: Antara Syara’ dan Adat (Beberapa Pandangan Ulama’ Semasa) Segala puji bagi Allah swt tuhan pencipta sekalian alam. Bagi menentukan adakah sesuatu perkahwinan itu boleh diiktibar (dianggap) sah di sisi Syara’ perlulah ianya memenuhi syarat-syarat yang ditetapkan oleh Syara’. Antara syarat-syarat untuk memastikan bahawa perkahwinan itu sah ialah: 1. Wujudnya keredhaan yang tulus daripada kedua-dua pihak suami dan isteri. 2. Lafaz yang menunjukkan bahawa perkahwinan itu tidak dibataskan oleh waktu-waktu tertentu. 3. Adanya wali bagi pihak isteri. 4. Perkahwinan itu disaksikan oleh saksi yang melengkapi syarat-syarat persaksian. 5. Perkahwinan tersebut diwarwarkan kepada umum. Jika lengkap syarat-syarat yang telah ditetapkan oleh syara’ ini maka perkahwinan Misyar ini adalah perkahwinan yang sah selagimana perkahwinan ini tidak bertempoh walau apa nama perkahwinan ini sekalipun. Namun apabila si isteri rela untuk menggugurkan hak-hak yang berhak untuk diperolehi oleh si isteri tersebut yang telah diberikan oleh syarak seperti nafkah, tempat tinggal dan pembahagian malam untuk suami bermalam di rumah isteri yang bermadu, maka pengguguran hak tersebut adalah harus di sisi syara’ sepertimana yang dilakukan oleh Sayyidah Sau’dah R.A. Beliau telah menghadiahkan hari yang sepatutnya Rasulullah saw bermalam di rumah beliau kepada Saiyyidah Aisyah R.A Pendapat daripada Fadhilah Al-Syeikh Dr. Nasr Farid Wasil (Bekas Mufti Mesir) Perkahwinan di dalam Islam adalah di antara hubungan kemanusiaan dan sosial yang paling suci yang dijaga oleh Islam dan Islam turut menyuruh untuk diambil segala jalan. yang boleh memudahkan perkahwinan di kalangan manusia, lelaki dan wanita malahan syarak turut meminta untuk menjaga perkahwinan dengan mewujudkan satu perjanjian yang kukuh yang menjelaskan hak-hak dan kewajipan rumahtangga dan kekeluargaan. yang diberkati dengan kalimah Allah. Perkahwinan adalah dituntut berdasarkan nas Al-Quran melalui firman Allah SWT di dalam surah al-Nur ayat 32: Dan kahwinkanlah orang-orang bujang (lelaki dan perempuan) dari kalangan kamu, dan orang-orang yang soleh dari hamba-hamba kamu, lelaki dan perempuan. Jika mereka miskin, Allah akan memberikan kekayaan kepada mereka dari limpah kurniaNya kerana Allah Maha Luas (rahmatNya dan limpah kurniaNya), lagi Maha Mengetahui. Allah swt juga berfirman didalam surah al-Rum ayat 21: Dan di antara membuktikan kekuasaannya dan rahmatNya, bahawa Dia menciptakan untuk kamu (wahai kaum lelaki), isteri-isteri dari jenis kamu sendiri, supaya kamu bersenang hati dan hidup mesra dengannya dan dijadikanNya di antara kamu (suami isteri) perasaan kasih sayang dan belas kasihan. Sesungguhnya yang demikian itu mengandungi keterangan-keterangan (yang menimbulkan kesedaran) bagi tanda-tanda yang orang-orang yang berfikir. Rasulullah saw juga bersabda dengan kalamnya yang mulia: “Perkahwinan itu adalah sunnahku. Barangsiapa yang berpaling daripada sunnahku maka bukanlah mereka daripada golonganku.” Melalui perkahwinan, berlakulah perlaksanaan Syariat Islam yang dikehendaki oleh Allah bagi kepentingan manusia menelusuri firman Allah taala yang bermaksud: "Sesungguhnya Aku hendak menjadikan seorang khalifah di bumi" (Al Baqarah ayat 30) Melalui perlaksanaan Syariat Islam maka ibadah akan sempurna yang kesempurnaan ibadah itu adalah dituntut dan diperintahkan oleh Allah memalui firmannya yang bermaksud: Dan (ingatlah) Aku tidak menciptakan jin dan manusia melainkan untuk mereka menyembah dan beribadat kepadaKu. Aku tidak sekali-kali menghendaki sebarang rezeki pemberian dari mereka dan Aku tidak menghendaki supaya mereka memberi makan kepadaKu. Sesungguhnya Allah Dialah sahaja Yang Memberi rezeki (kepada sekalian makhlukNya, dan Dialah sahaja) Yang Mempunyai Kekuasaan yang tidak terhingga, lagi Yang Maha Kuat Kukuh kekuasaanNya. (Al Zhariat ayat 56 hingga 58) Perkahwinan yang memenuhi tujuan yang baik dan mulia ini adalah perkahwinan yang sah di sisi syara’ yang memenuhi rukun-rukun dan syarat-syarat perkahwinan yang digariskan oleh syarak yang diperintahkan oleh Allah dan rasulNya di dalam Al-Quran dan Al-Sunnah di samping turut disepakati oleh ulama Islam di setiap zaman. Ini kerana itu, rukun-rukun nikah dan syarat-syaratnyalah yang akan membezakan antara akad nikah yang menepati syarak dan akad nikah yang diharamkan oleh Islam. Rukun serta syarat nikah ini yang akan menjadi pembeza yang berterusan sehingga hari kiamat. Sehubungan dengan itu, pihak Dar al-Ifta’ (Majlis Fatwa Mesir) berpandangan bahawa nikah misyar jika ia memenuhi syarat-syarat dan rukun-rukun ini iaitu keredaan yang sempurna daripada pihak suami dan isteri, lafaz akad nikah yang mengandungi maksud perkahwinan yang berterusan, wali daripada pihak pengantin wanita, saksi-saksi yang memenuhi kriteria yang penuh sebagai seorang saksi yang sempurna dan peisytiharan perkahwinan tersebut dengan cara yang pelbagai maka perkahwinan tersebut adalah perkahwianan yang sah di sisi syara’ dengan kita tidak perlu memandang kepada apa sahaja jenis istilah yang diberikan terhadap nama perkahwinan itu selama mana perkahwinan itu tidak diterhadkan kepada tempoh tertentu atas sebab-sebab berikut: 1. Sesungguhnya Allah SWT telah menjadikan risalah Muhammad SAW ini sebagai penutup segala risalah dan Allah swt telah menurunkan al-Quran sebagai penunjuk kepada kesejahteraan seluruh umat sehingga waktu di mana Allah akan mewarisi bumi ini dan insan yang berada di dalamnya (hari kiamat). Oleh itu tidak ada satupun perkara yang berlaku dalam kehidupan manusia melainkan manusia akan mendapati penyelesaiannya di dalam kitab kepada risalah Nabi Muhammad SAW (Al-Quran) Allah berfirman: "Tiada Kami tinggalkan sesuatu pun di dalam kitab Al-Quran ini" (Al An`am ayat 38) Istilah Misyar terdapat hukum padanya jika kita meniliti secara terperinci di dalam sejarah-sejarah para ulama terdahulu dan sekarang. Sesiapa yang meneliti sejarah pengembaraan umat Islam terdahulu, dia akan mendapati bahawa terdapat di kalangan generasi terdahulu insan-insan yang mengembara keluar daripada tanah air demi menuntut ilmu atau berniaga. Jika mereka singgah di sesuatu negara di tengah perjalanan maka mereka akan menetap di situ dalam beberapa masa tertentu, lama atau sekejap seterusnya berkahwin dengan penduduk negeri tersebut dan mendapat zuriat kemudian menyambung kembali perjalanannya dengan meninggalkan isterinya sama ada dengan jalan talak atau sebagainya dalam keadaan isterinya rela dengan perkara tersebut. 2. Di sana hanya ada satu jalan sahaja tanpa ada jalan yang kedua yang membenarkan kepuasan seks dapat disalurkan. Jalan ini ialah perkahwinan yang menepati syarak. Oleh itu selain daripada perkahwinan yang sah di sisi syarak, maka ia adalah dilarang oleh syariat-syariat Allah dalam semua agama malahan syariat-syariat Allah Taala menganggap jalan selain perkahwinan adalah jalan-jalan yang mungkar. Al-Quran telah menerangkan perkara ini di dalam firman Allah Taala : "Dan mereka yang menjaga kehormatannya. Kecuali kepada isterinya atau hamba sahayanya maka sesungguhnya mereka tidak tercela. Kemudian, sesiapa yang mengingini selain dari yang demikian, maka merekalah orang-orang yang melampaui batas" (Al-Mukminun ayat 5-7) Syariat Islamiah telahpun menerangkan bahawa perkahwinan yang menepati Islam sahaja yang dapat mengumpulkan antara lelaki dan wanita dengan kalimat Allah di atas akad yang berterusan dan perjanjian yang kukuh. Oleh itu setiap kehendak yang jauh daripada perkahwinan yang menepati syarak adalah satu penderhakaan terhadap Allah dan satu pelampauan batas terhadap garis panduan yang telah ditetapkan oleh Allah. 3. Seseorang isteri itu mempunyai hak di sisi syariat untuk menggugurkan hak-hak mereka yang sepatutnya mereka perolehi seperti memohon nafkah, tempat tinggal dan pembahagian malam untuk bersama dengan suami bagi isteri yang bermadu. Perkara ini secara jelas telah ditunjukkan oleh isteri Rasulullah saw iaitu Sayyidah Saudah yang secara rela telah memberikan hari yang sepatutnya Rasulullah saw bersama dengannya kepada Saiyyidah Aisyah r.a. Seandainya kerelaan ini tidak menepati syarak maka pasti Rasulullah akan tidak bersetuju dengan tindakan Sayyidah Saudah. Oleh itu setiap syarat yang dibuat yang tidak menafikan tujuan asas dan maksud utama bagi perkahwinan, maka syarat tersebut adalah sah dan tidak akan sama sekali mencacatkan akad nikah atau membatalkannya. Dar al-Ifta’ (Majlis Fatwa Mesir) tidaklah bermaksud melalui fatwa ini untuk menyuruh masyarakat memilih jalan perkahwinan sebegini. Namun begitu, pihak Dar al-Ifta’ hanya bertanggungjawab untuk bersungguh-sungguh menerangkan hukum-hukum syarak yang betul dengan bersumberkan sumber-sumber hukum daripada Al-Quran dan sunnah baginda Rasulullah saw serta pendapat para ulama muktabar daripada mazhab terdahulu. Pendapat daripada Fadilah al-Syeikh Dr. Yusuf al-Qaradhawi : Perkahwinan Misyar adalah perkahwinan yang seperti kita selalu perhatikan. Cuma yang berbeza disini ialah istilah misyar yang digunakan. Sesuatu perkara itu bukanlah diambil hukumnya daripada nama dan ibaratnya tetapi dilihat kepada apakah yang terkandung didalam perkara tersebut. Terkadang manusia ada meletakkan nama yang lain daripada nama tersebut. Kita mengetahui bahawa terdapat dikalangan para suami yang berkahwin dengan isteri yang kedua tanpa memberitahu kepada isterinya yang pertama berhubung dengan perkahwinan tersebut. Perkahwinan seperti ini seolah-olah menyerupai nikah urfi walaupun bukanlah secara keseluruhannya. Terdapat juga sebahagian daripada para fuqaha’ yang berpendapat bahawa harus bagi si isteri untuk tidak menuntut hak kepada suami mereka seperti hak bermalam dirumah mereka. Saya bukanlah dikalangan orang yang mencanangkan perkahwinan sebegini, dan saya juga bukanlah dikalangan orang yang menulis risalah untuk menyokong kearah perlaksanaan perkahwinan sebegini. Namun bukanlah saya mampu untuk mengharamkan sesuatu perkara yang telah dihalalkan oleh Allah swt. Bilamana ditanya kepada saya, apakah hukum perkahwinan sebegini? Saya pasti akan berkata saya tidaklah mengetahui akan perkahwinan sebegini. Tetapi cubalah kamu berikan gambaran secara jelas kepada saya berkenaan perkahwinan tersebut. Maka kata lelaki tersebut, Perkahwinan tersebut terdapat akad yang sah, terdapat saksi yang memenuhi syarat, terdapat juga didalam perkahwinan ini walimatulurus, dan pendek kata kesemua hukum yang ditetapkan syara’ memenuhi pekahwinan ini. Bagaimana mungkin bagi seorang fakih yang mendengarkan permasalahan sebegini akan mengatakan perkahwinan sebegini adalah haram? Walaupun ianya mengundang ketidakpuasan hati dikalangan masyarakat. Terdapat perkara yang tidak disepakati oleh masyarakat tetapi ianya adalah harus bagi syara’. Contohnya ialah seperti perkahwinan antara seorang hamba dengan tuannya Perkara ini tentulah tidak mendapat persetujuan daripada masyarakat tetapi jika ianya sempurna syarat-syaratnya dan rukunnya maka tentulah saya akan mengatakan bahawa perkara adalah harus bagi syara’. Contoh lain yang dapat saya berikan disini ialah perkahwinan seorang perempuan dengan seorang lelaki yang sudah tua seperti datuknya (hanya kerana lelaki itu kaya) tentulah akan mendapat tentangan daripada masyarakat. Adakah perkahwinan antara perempuan muda tersebut dengan lelaki tua itu haram? Jawabnya Tidak! Kita tidak pernah mengatakan perkara itu haram. Bahkan saya mengatakan perkara ini dibenci oleh masyarakat.Tetapi untuk mengatakan sesuatu perkara itu haram atau halal bukanlah satu perbuatan yang mudah. Mahu tidak mahu bagi si alim perlulah senantiasa takutkan Allah dan senantiasa berjaga-jaga didalam mengistinbatkan (mensabitkan) sesuatu hukum berkaitan dengan agamanya. Kita tidak mengatakan bahawa perkahwinan sebegini haram melainkan jika terdapatnya dalil-dalil yang menguatkan bahawa perkahwinan sebegini adalah haram!! Pendapat daripada Fadhilah al-Syeikh Dr. Ali Jum’ah Al-Syafie (Mufti Mesir Sekarang) Syarat perkahwinan di dalam Islam adalah perlunya ada ijab dan qabul serta tidak bercanggah dengan larangan syara’ pada suami, isteri, wali, dan saksi. Apabila telah sempurna syarat-syarat dengan akad di antara lelaki dan wanita, maka sempurnalah pernikahan tersebut. Sebaliknya apabila tidak cukup syarat tersebut, maka pernikahan tersebut terbatal. Orang Islam diminta untuk menunaikan syarat yang telah dipersetujuinya. Oleh itu seorang wanita dibenarkan untuk menggugurkan hak yang berhak diperolehinya dalam masalah kewajipan suami untuk bermalam dengan si isteri kerana Sayyidah Saudah Binti Zam`ah telah tidak mengambil hak bermalam bersama Rasulullah SAW dan memberikan hak tersebut kepada ‘Aisyah R.A. Wanita juga dibenarkan untuk memulangkan maharnya atau nafkah yang berhak diperolehinya kerana Allah SWT berfirman di dalam surah An-Nisa’ ayat 4 yang bermaksud : "Kemudian jika mereka dengan suka hatinya memberikan kepada kamu sebahagian dari mas kahwinnya maka makanlah (gunakanlah) pemberian (yang halal) itu sebagai nikmat yang lazat, lagi baik kesudahannya" Pendapat Prof. Dr. Wahbah Az-Zuhaily (Universiti Damsyiq, Syria) Perkahwinan Misyar adalah satu perkahwinan dimana seorang wanita tidak mengambil sebahagian daripada hak-haknya. Perkahwinan ini walaupun tidak menyampaikan hasrat dan maksud perkahwinan, namun perkahwinan ini harus tetapi makruh dan tidak sepatutnya diamalkan melainkan pada beberapa keadaan tertentu. Telah berkata Prof Dr Wahbah Az-Zuhaily, pensyarah Syariah di Universiti Damsyiq, Syria. “Perkahwinan disyariatkan oleh Allah SWT untuk merealisasikan beberapa tujuan”. Di antaranya adalah : 1. Untuk menambah keturunan dan memelihara kelangsungan zuriat. 2. Adalah untuk mendatangkan kebahagiaan, 3. Memelihara diri daripada terjebak ke kancah maksiat dan zina 4. Mewujudkan kerjasama dan keserasian hidup antara lelaki dan wanita untuk kehidupan berumahtangga. 5. Perkahwinan juga adalah untuk mewujudkan kebahagiaan, dan ketenangan di antara suami dan isteri selain bertujuan untuk mendidik anak-anak dengan didikan yang sempurna. Perkahwinan Misyar juga merealisasikan sebahagian daripada tujuan-tujuan perkahwinan walaupun tidak kesemuanya. Isteri tidak mengambil haknya di dalam nafkah, tempat tinggal, sekiranya suami mempunyai isteri lain. Tujuan yang jelas daripada pernikahan ini adalah untuk bersenang-senang (melunasi fitrah batin isteri) samada si suami jelas mengambil faedah daripada harta isteri manakala si isteri dapat menikmati kehidupan berumah-tangga. Pada hemat saya, hukum perkahwinan misyar ini adalah sah sekiranya cukup dan sempurna rukun-rukun dan syarat-syarat yang ditetapkan oleh syarak iaitu kerelaan wali, saksi dan pemakluman kepada umum. Sekiranya tidak cukup salah satu daripada syarat-syarat ini maka tidak sah di sisi para fuqahak. Tetapi, sebagai jaminan kepada isteri dan hak-haknya dalam jangka masa yang panjang, hendaklah isteri tersebut berwaspada dengan mendaftarkan perkahwinan tersebut kepada pendaftaran rasmi dengan pihak berkuasa atau yang bertanggungjawab. Hal ini kerana, sekiranya si suami meninggal dunia, dituntut daripada si isteri ‘iddah dan berhak terhadap warisan harta pusaka suami. Si isteri pula telah berubah fikiran dan menuntut haknya di dalam nafkah atau bahagian yang wajib daripada harta pusaka suami. Selagimana pernikahan ini tidak merealisasikan semua tujuan dan motif perkahwinan, kemanusiaan dan kemasyarakatan didalam keadaan yang sempurna dan optimum, maka saya memberikan peringatan dan tidak menggalakkan pernikahan ini dan menghukumkan ia sebagai makruh. Sesungguhnya perkahwinan adalah bersendikan kepercayaan yang padu. Namun begitu, sekiranya sesuatu pasangan masih tetap ingin mendirikan rumah tangga mereka dengan perkahwinan jenis ini, maka diharuskan tetapi mereka berdua mesti menanggung kesan dan akibat daripada perkahwinan tersebut seperti salah seorang daripada keduanya tidak adil didalam menjaga hak-hak dan melaksanakan kewajipan khususnya di dalam hubungan suami isteri. Pada keadaan begini, ianya menjadi haram walaupun aqad perkahwinan tersebut sah. http://permataaqiq.blogspot.com/2006/05/hukum-nikah-misyar.html
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